SB 195 
.S6 
1914 
Copy 1 



Modern 




PUBLISHERS' STATEMENT 



We DO NOT manufacture or handle silos, and are not 
interested in silos in any way except from an educational 
standpoint. This attitude enables us to discuss the various 
types of silos in an entirely impartial manner. 

We have been publishing educational literature on silos 
and silage for over thirty years, fully two decades before 
the farm papers of the country began to boost the subject. 
This pioneer work explains why "Modern Silage Methods" 
has become the standard text book now used in so many 
State Agricultural Colleges for class-room use. 

We do however manufacture the famous line of Silver's 
"Ohio" Silo Fillers and Feed Cutters as illustrated and de- 
scribed in the back part of this volume, and if the reader will 
kindly investigate and consider the merits of this line of 
Silo Fillers when in the market, we will feel amply paid for 
the trouble and expense of publishing this valuable book. 

Respectfully, / 

THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO. / ^ 



Salem, Ohio, Nov. 2, 1914. 




MODERN 
SILAGE METHODS 



LATEST REVISED EDITION 
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 



An entirely new and practical work on Silos, their construction 

and the process of filling, to which is added complete 

and reliable information regarding Silage and its 

composition; feeding, and a treatise 

on rations, being a 



FEEDERS' AND DAIRYMEN'S GUIDE 



PUBLISHED 
AND COPYRIGHTED BY 



THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO. 
SALEM, OHIO, U. S. A. 



Revised and Brought_Up-to-Date by 
WILLIAM L. WRIGHT. Advertising Manager 



Ci w- 



Copyrighted November 1914, by 
The Silver Manufacturing Co. 



NOV 19 1914 

©GI.A387585 




pr'eface. 



This book has been written and published for the purpose of fur- 
nishing our patrons and others with accurate and full information 
on the subject of silo construction and the making of silage. It 
has been our aim to present the subject in a clear, matter-of-fact 
manner, without flourish or rhetoric, believing that the truth con- 
cerning the advantages of the siloing system is good enough. The 
testimony presented, which is purposely kept close to the exper- 
ience of authorities on feeding subjects in and outside of experi- 
ment stations, will abundantly prove, we believe, that the equip- 
ment of a dairy or stock farm in almost any part of the world is 
no longer complete without one or riiore silos on it. 

The new chapter on "Silage Crops for the Semi-Arid Regions 
and for the South" will be of widespread interest to thousands in 
the Great Southwest, and the chapters on "The Summer Silo," 
and "The Use of Silage in Beef Production," will be found espe- 
cially timely. Chapter III. covers a great variety of silos made of 
material other than wood. In all other respects the book has been 
revised and brought up to date. 

In order that a work of this kind be accurate and reliable, and 
bear the scrutiny of scientific readers, the use of a number of 
scientific terms and phrases is rendered necessary, and in order 
that these may be more readily comprehended by agriculturists, 
a comprehensive glossary of such terms is included, following the 
last chapter, which can be referred to from time to time, or can 
be studied previous to reading the book. 

In the compilation of certain parts of the book and in the 
revision of the "Feeder's Guide" we have had the valuable assist- 
ance of Prof Woll, of California Experiment Station, formerly of 
Wisconsin, author of "A Book on Silage" and "A Handbook for 
Farmers and Dairymen." Free use of the former book has been 
made in the preparation of this volume, as well as of experiment 
station publications treating the subject of silage. 

Hoping that this latest revision of "Modern Silage Methods" 
will prove helpful to our patrons, and incidentally suggest to them 
that the "OHIO" Silage Cutters and Blower Elevators are manu- 
factured by us, we are, 

Very truly, 

THE SILVER MFG. CO. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PREFACE 3 

INTRODUCTORY 7-10 

CHAPTER I. 

Advantages of the Silo — Preservation of a larger quantity of 
original food value enabled by the use of the Silo than any 
method known — Losses of nutritive value in dry curing — Small 
losses in the Siloing Process — The Silo furnishes a feed of uni- 
form quality — Economy of making — Economy of storage — No 
danger of rain — No danger of late summer droughts — Pood 
from thistles — Value in intensive farming — Other advant- 
ages 11-20 

CHAPTER II. 

How to Build a Silo. 
Silos — General requirements for silo structures — On the size of 
silo required — On the form of silos — Relations of horizontal 
feeding — Area and number of cows kept — Daily ration of 
silage for different kinds of stock — ^Location of the silo — 
Different types of silo structures — Round wooden silos — The 
silo roof — Ventilation of Silo — Painting the Lining — Modifica- 
tions of the Wisconsin Silo — Plastered round wooden Silos — 
Brick-lined Silos— Stave Silos — Cheap Stave Silos — Silo Doors — 
A modification of a stave Silo — Connecting round silos with 
the barn — Other forms of round silos — Octagonal Silos — Cost 
and estimates for different kinds 21-81 

CHAPTER III. 

Silos Other Than Wood. 

Monolithic concrete or cement silos — Horizontal and vertical re- 
inforcement necessary — Continuous doorways — Method of tying 
roof — Hy-Rib concrete reinforced silos — Metal-lath plastered 
silos — Modifications, double and single wall — Cement Block 
silos, one- and two-piece — Patented sectional block silos — 
Cement Stave silos — Vitrified Tile silos — Brick silos, single and 
double wall — All-Metal silos — Underground or Pit silos — Foun- 
dations and Roofs for silos 82-110 

4 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 5 

CHAPTER IV. 

Summer Silos. 

Necessary in supplementing summer pastures and in tiding herd 
over period of drouth, heat and flies — Reduces pasture acre- 
age required — Avoids labor of soiling crop system — Oregon 
results — Purdue Station Experiments — Solves summer drouth 
problem — Permits night pasturing — Storage of surplus crops — 
Comments by the agricultural press — Feeding of summer 
silage 111-117 

CHAPTER V. 

Silage in Beef Production. 

Value and Economy of Silage for fattening steers — Experiments 
made twenty-flve years ago — Beef producing area vastly in- 
creased by use of silo — Stock-Yards are strong boosters for 
silage — Results by Nebraska, Pennsylvania, Missouri, South 
Carolina, North Carolina, Illinois, Indiana and South Dakota 
Stations — Results in Saskatchewan, Kansas, Iowa, and Texas — 
Results in the South 118-129 

CHAPTER VI. 

Silage System and Soil Fertility. 

Helps maintain soil fertility — Every crop grown robs soil of fer- 
tilizing elements — Value of Such Fertility Lost — -Restoration 
has vital bearing on our crop yields — Stock, dairy and mixed 
farming vs. hay and grain farming — Value of barnyard ma- 
nure — Every farm a manure factory with silage — Keeping fer- 
tility on the farm — Restoring Fertility in the South. .. .130-138 

CHAPTER VII. 

Silage Crops. * 

Indian corn — Soils best adapted to corn culture and preparation 
of land — Varieties of corn for the silo — Time of cutting corn 
for the silo — Dry Matter in Corn at Different Stages — Methods 
of planting corn — All other silage crops 139-159 



6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Silage Crops for the Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. 

Importance of Sorghum. Kafir and Milo for silage — Mixtures of 
tiie sorghums and other crops — Cowpeas, field peas, soy beans, 
alfalfa, beet leaves and tops, Russian thistle, etc. — Conditions 
in the Great Southwest — Silage crops for the Southern 
States 160-172 

CHAPTER IX. 

Filling the Silo — Indian Corn — Siloing com "ears and all" — The 
filling process — Proper method of unloading — The proper dis- 
tribution of cut material in the silo — Tramping — Size of cutter 
and power required — Length of chain elevator required — Direc- 
tions for operating "Ohio" Blower Cutters — Danger from car- 
bonic-acid poisoning in silos — Covering the siloed fodder — Use 
of water in filling silos — Clover for summer silage — Freezing 
of silage — Steamed silage 173-189 

CHAPTER X. 

How to feed silage — Silage for milch cows — Silage in the pro- 
duction of certified milk — Silage for beef cattle — for Horses 
and Mules — for Sheep — for Swine — Silage for poulti'y — Addi- 
tional testimony as to the advantage of silage — Corn silage as 
compared with root crops — Corn silage as compared with hay — 
Com silage compared with fodder corn — Cost of Producing 
Succulent Crops — How to Estimate Cost of Silage 190-211 

CHAPTER XI. 

A feeder's guide — Composition of the animal body — Composition 
of feeding stuffs— Digestibility of foods— Relative value of 

feeding stuffs — Feeding standards — How to figure out rations 

Grain mixtures for dairy cows — Average composition of Silage 
crops of different kinds, in per cent— Analysis of feeding 
stuffs — Ready reference tables 212-240 

GLOSSARY 



CONCLUSION 



.241-24.5 



246 

INDEX ; 247.25g 



Modern Silage Methods. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Thirty years ago few farmers knew what a silo was, and fewer 
still had ever seen a silo or fed silage to their stock. Today silos 
are as common as barn buildings in many farming districts in this 
country, and thousands of farmers would want to quit farming 
if they could not have silage to feed to their stock during the 
larger portion of the year. Thirty years ago it would have been 
necessary t'o begin a book describing the siloing system with 
definitions, what is meant bj^ silos and silage; now all farmers 
who read agricultural papers or attend agricultural or dairy con- 
ventions are at least familiar with these words, even if they have 
not had a chance to become familiar with the appearance and 
properties of silage. They know that a SILO is an air-tight struc- 
ture used for the preservation of green, coarse fodder in a succu- 
lent condition, and that SILAGE is the feed taken out of a silo. 

We shall later see which crops are adapted for silage making, 
but want to state here at the outset that Indian corn is pre- 
eminently the American crop suited to be preserved in silos, and 
that this crop is siloed far more than all other kinds of crops put 
together. When the word silage is mentioned we, therefore, in- 
stinctively think of com silage. We shall also follow this plan in 
the discussions in this book; when only silage is spoken of we 
mean silage made from the corn plant; if made from other crops 
the name of the crop is always given, as clover silage, peavine 
silage ,etc. 

History of the Silo. — While the silo in one form or another 
dates back to antiquity, it was not until the latter part of the 
seventies that the building of silos intended for manufacture of 
silage began in this country. In 1882 the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture could find only ninety-one farmers in this 
country who used silos. During the last twenty-five years, how- 
ever, silos have gradually become general in all sections of the 
country where dairying and stock-raising are important indus- 
tries; it is likely, if a census were taken of the number of silos 
in this country today, that we would find between a half 



8 INTRODUCTORY. 

and three-fourths of a million of them. Wisconsin alone, ac- 
cording to a report issued by the Orang-e Judd publications, 
had 41,535 silos on Jan. 1, 1914, and figuring the same ratio 
of increase for 1914 as for 1913, would have 52.334. The 
same report showed 130,303 silos in thirteen dairy states of the 
Mississippi valley and the 1914 increase figuring as above would 
indicate a total of 170,837. The most rapid strides in silo build- 
ing, however, have been made in the Southwest. On Sept. 1st, 
1914, there were 8,560 silos in Texas and 4800 more under con- 
struction. In Kansas there were 7,137 silos in March 1914 and 
taking the report as authentic that there were only 60 silos in the 
state in 1909, the increase in the five years amounts to 11,800 per 
cent. Oklahoma silos increased 50 per cent, in 1913 alone. Not 
only has the use of silos spread to every section of the United 
States, but the corn belt has been pushed steadily northward, with 
the result that the building of silos is making headway in Mani- 
toba, Alberta, Saskatchewan, British Columbia and the Canadian 
Northwest generally. During the past two years there has been 
a wonderful increase in the interest taken in the subject, an in- 
terest fostered by the example set by the Canadian Government 
Experimental Farms and the literature available from them. 

The silo stands today among the most important, practical and 
profitable adjuncts of the farm. It is a big dividend-paying in- 
vestment — not an expense. It has long been considered a necessity 
on thousands of dairy farms and we find most of them in the 
states that rank first as dairy states, viz.: New York, Wis- 
consin, Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania, etc. The farmers that have 
had most experience with silage are the most enthusiastic advo- 
cates of the siloing system, and the testimony of intelligent dairy- 
men all over the country is strongly in favor of the silo. Said a 
New York farmer recently in one of our main agricultural papers: 
"I would as soon try to farm without a barn as without a silo," 
and another wrote, "I wouldn't take a thousand dollars for my 
silo if I could not replace it." The well-known agricultural writer, 
Joseph E. Wing, says: "No stock feeder who grows corn can 
afford to ignore the silo." "Buff Jersey," an Illinois dairy farmer 
and writer on agricultural topics, declares his faith in silage as 
follows: "I am fully satisfied that silage is a better feed, and a 
cheaper one, than our pastures." Another writer says: "The silo 
to my mind presents so many advantages over the system of 



INTRODUCTORY. 9 

soiling that it is bound to eventually do away with the use of 
soiling crops." Prof. Eckels, of the Missouri Agricultural College, 
says: "I would not attempt to produce milk in this state or any 
other state in the Corn Belt without being provided with a silo 
of sufficient capacity to supply silage through the winter, and 
preferably with sufficient capacity to contain enough for a sup- 
plement for a short pasture in the summer." Prof. Pew, of the 
Iowa Experiment Station, says: "By the liberal use of silage the 
cost of wintering the breeding herd of beef cows can be cut down 
nearly one-third; also the cows will come through the winter in 
better condition." 

Our first effort in writing this book will be to present facts 
that will back up these statements, and show the reader the many 
advantages of the silo over other systems of growing and curing 
crops for the feeding of farm animals. We shall show that up- 
to-date dairy or stock farming is well nigh impossible without 
the aid of a silo. The silo enables us to feed live stock succulent 
feeds the year around, and preserves the fodder in a better con- 
dition and with less waste than any other sj'stem can. We shall 
see the why and wherefore of this in the following pages, and 
shall deal with the best way of making and feeding silage to 
farm animals. We wish to state at the outset that we do not 
propose to make any claims for the silo that will not stand the 
closest investigation. In the early days of the history of the 
silo movement it was thought necessary to make exaggerated 
claims, but this is no longer the case. Naked facts are sufficient 
to secure for the silo a permanent place among the necessary 
equipment of a modern dairy or stock farm. In discussing the 
silo we shall keep close to what has been found out at our experi- 
ment stations, and, we believe, shall be able to prove to any fair- 
minded reader that the silo is the greatest boon that has come 
to modern agriculture since the first reaper was manufactured, 
and that with competition and resulting low prices, it will be 
likely to become more of a necessity to our farmers in the future 
than it has been in the past. We aim to convince our readers 
that the most sensible thing they can do is to plan to build a silo 
at once if they do not now have one. It is unnecessary to argue 
with those who are already the happy possessors of a silo, for 
it is a general experience where a farmer has only provided for 
immediate wants in building his silo that he will build another as 



10 INTRODUCTORY. 

soon as he has had some experience with silage and finds out how 
his stock likes it, and how well they do on it. 

The life of the silo should always be carefully considered in 
connection with its initial cost. A silo might be built for $150 
which would last ten years, the cost exclusive of upkeep being $15 
a year. With the use of better materials or construction on the 
same size silo its life might be increased to twenty years at an 
additional outlay of perhaps $50, w^hich it will be readily seen is 
much cheaper per year. Quality usually goes hand in hand with 
price and the farmer who can afford it should not make the mis- 
take of building anything but the best if he wishes to economize 
to greatest advantage. 

Modern practice has proved that no man need say "I cannot 
afford a silo," because any farmer who is at all handy with ham- 
mer and saw can provide a silo large enough for moderate re- 
Quirements with very little actual outlay of money, and this same 
built-at-home silo will earn for its owner money to build a better 
one and enlarge his herd. Directions for building several kinds 
of such silos are given in the following pages. It must not be 
expected that they will last as long or will prove as economical 
in the long run as more substantially-built factory-made silos, 
still they give excellent service until the farmer can afford to 
put up a structure of better quality. Experience in making and 
feeding silage will be gained at much less cost by using a good 
silo in the beginning. 

We mention this fact here to show farmers who may be con- 
sidering the matter of building a silo, or who may be inclined to 
think that the silo is an expensive luxury, only for rich farmers, 
that the cost of a silo need not debar them from the advantages 
of having one on their farm, and thus secure a uniform succulent 
feed for their stock through the whole winter. Farmers who have 
not as yet informed themselves in regard to the value of the 
silo and silage on dairy or stock farms ,are respectfully asked 
to read carefully the following statements of the advantages of 
the silo system over other m.ethods of preserving green forage 
for winter or summer feeding. 

It has been said that "Whoever makes two blades of grass grow 
where but one grew before is a benefactor to mankind." A silo 
makes it possible to keep two cows where but one was kept be- 
fore, and who would not gladly double his income? Does not this 
interest you? 



CHAPTER I. 

ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

The silo enables us to preserve a larger quantity of the food 
materials of the original fodder for the feeding of farm animals 
than is possible by any other system of preservation now known. 
Pasture grass is the ideal feed for live stock, but it is not avail- 
able more than a few months in the year. The same holds true 
with all soiling- crops or tame grasses as well. When made into 
hay the grasses and other green crops lose some of the food ma- 
terials contained therein, both on account of unavoidable losses 
of leaves and other tender parts, and on account of fermentations 
which take place while the plants are drying out. 

In cases of Indian corn the losses from the latter source are 
considerable, owing to the coarse stalks of the plant and the 
large numbers of air-cells in the pith of these. Under the best 
of conditions cured fodder corn will lose at least ten per cent, of 
its food value when cured in shocks; such a low loss can only 
be obtained when the shocks are cared for under cover, or out in 
the field under ideal weather conditions: In ordinary farm prac- 
tice the loss in nutritive value will approach twenty- five per cent., 
and will even exceed this figure unless special precautions are 
taken in handling the fodder, and it is not left exposed to all 
kinds of weather in shocks in the field through the whole winter. 
These figures may seem surprisingly large to many farmers who 
have left fodder out all winter long, and find the com inside the 
shock bright and green, almost as it was when put up. But ap- 
pearances are deceitful; if the shocks had been weighed as they 
were put up, and again in the late winter, another story would be 
told, and it would be found that the shocks only weighed any- 
where from a third to a half as much as when they were cured 
and ready to be put in the barn late in the fall; if chemical 
analysis of the corn in the shocks were made late in the fall, and 
when taken down, it would be seen that the decrease in weight 
was not caused by evaporation of water from the fodder, but by 
waste of food materials contained therein from fermentations. 
or action of enzymes. (See Glossary.) 

The correctness of the figiares given above has been abund- 
antly proved by careful experiments conducted at a number of 
different experiment stations, notably the Wisconsin, New Jersey, 
"Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Colorado experiment stations. A 

11 



12 



ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 



summary of the main work in this line is given in Prof. Woll's 
Book on Silage. In the Wisconsin experiments there was an aver- 
age loss of 23.8 per cent, in the dry matter (see Glossary) and 
24.5 per cent, of protein, during four different years, when over 
36 tons of green fodder had been put up in shocks and carefully 
weighed and sampled at the beginning and end of the experiment. 
These shocks had been left out for different lengths of time, under 
varying conditions of weather, and made from different kinds of 
corn, so as to present a variety of conditions. The Colorado ex- 
periments are perhaps the most convincing as to the losses which 
unavoidably take place in the curing of Indian corn in shocks. 
The following account is taken from Prof. Cook's report of the 
experiments. As the conditions described in the investigation will 
apply to most places on our continent where Indian com is cured 
for fodder, it will be well for farmers to carefully look into the 
results of the experiment. 

"It is believed by most fai'mers that, in the dry climate of 
Colorado, fodder corn, where cut and shocked in good shape, cures 
without loss of feeding value, and that the loss of weight that oc- 
curs is merely due to the drying out of the water. A test of this 
question was made in the fall of 1893, and the results obtained 
seemed to indicate that fully a third of the feeding value was lost 
in the curing. This result was so surprising that the figures were 
not published, fearing that some error had crept in, though we 
could not see where there was the possibility of a mistake. 

"In the fall of 1894 the test was repeated on a larger scale. 
A lot of corn was carefully weighed and sampled. It was then 
divided into three portions; one was spread on the ground in a 
thin layer, the second part was set up in large shocks, containing 
about five hundred pounds of green fodder in each, while the rest 
was shocked in small bundles. After remaining thus for some 
months, until thoroughly cured, the portions were weighed, 
sampled and analyzed separately. The table gives the losses that 
occurred in the curing. 

Table I. Losses in Curing. 





Large Shocks 


Small 


Shocks 


On the Ground 




Total 
Weight 


Dry 
Matter 


Total 
Weight 


Dry 
Matter 


Total 
Weight 


Dry 
Matter 


When Shocked 


Lbs. 
952 

258 

694 

1 73 


Lbs. 

217 

150 

67 

51 


Lbs. 
294 

64 
250 

78 


Lbs. 

77 
44 
55 
45 


Lbs. 

186 

35 

155 

82 


Lbs. 

42 


After Curing 


19 


Loss in Weight 

Per Cent of Loss 


25 
55 



LOSSES IN DRY CURING. 13 

"So far as could be told by the eye, there had been no loss. 
The fodder had cured in nice shape, and the stalks on the inside 
of the bundles retained their green color, with no sign of molding 
or heating. And yet the large shocks had lost 31 per cent, of 
their dry matter, or feeding value; the small shocks 43 per cent, 
and the corn spread on the ground 55 per cent. 

"On breaking or cutting the stalks these losses were explained. 
The juice was acid, and there was a very strong acid odor, show- 
ing that an active fermentation was taking place in this seemingly 
dry fodder. We had noticed this strong odor the fall before and 
all through the winter. When the fodder corn for the steers is 
put through the feed cutter that same strong smell is present. 

"It can be said, then, that the dryness of the climate in Colo- 
rado does not prevent fodder corn from losing a large part of its 
feeding value through fermentation. Indeed, the loss from this 
source is fully as great as in the damp climate in New England. 

"As compared with the losses by fermentation in the silo, the 
cured fodder shows considerably the higher loss." 

In experiments at the Wisconsin station eleven shocks cured 
under cover in the bam lost on an average over 8 per cent, of 
dry matter and toward 14 per cent, of protein. In an experiment 
at the Maine Station over 14 per cent, of dry matter was lost in 
the process of slow drying of a. large sample of fodder corn under 
the most favorable circumstances. "It is interesting to note that 
this loss falls almost entirely on the nitrogen -free extract, or 
carbohydrates (see Glossary), more than two-thirds of it being 
actually accounted for by the diminished percentage of sugars." 

Since such losses will occur in fodder cured under cover with 
all possible care, it is evident that the average losses of dry mat- 
ter in field-curing fodder corn, given in the preceding, by no means 
can be considered exaggerated. Exposure to rain and storm, 
abrasion of dry leaves and thin stalks, and other factors tend to 
diminish the nutritive value of the fodder, aside from the losses 
from fermentations, so that very often only one-half of the food 
materials originally present in the fodder is left by the time it 
is fed out. The remaining portion of the fodder has, furthermore, 
a lower digestibility and a lower feeding value than the fodder 
corn when put up, for the reason that the fermentations occurring 
during the curing process destroy the most valuable and easily 
digestible part, i. e., the sugar and starch of the nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, which are soluble, or readily rendered soluble, in the process 
of digestion. 



14 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

2. Losses in the Siloing Process.— As compared with the 
large losses in food materials in field-curing of Indian corn there 
are but comparatively small losses in the silo, caused by fermen- 
tation processes or decomposition of the living plant cells at they 
are dying off. The losses in this case have been repeatedly de- 
termined by experiment stations, and, among others, by those men- 
tioned in the preceding.' The average losses of dry matter in the 
fodder corn during the siloing period, of four seasons (1887-'91) 
as determined by Prof. WoU at the Wisconsin Experiment Station 
was about 16 per cent. The silos used in these trials, as in case 
of nearly all the early experiments on this point, were small and 
shallow, however, only 14 feet deep, were rectangular in form, and 
not always perfectly air-tight, a most important point in silo con- 
struction, as we shall see, and a portion of the silage therefore 
came out spoilt, thus increasing the losses of food materials in 
the siloing process. The losses reported were, therefore, too great, 
and there is now an abundance of evidence at hand showing that 
the figures given are higher than those found in actual practice, 
and the necessary loss in the silo comes considerably below that 
found in the early experiments on this point. There are plenty 
of cases on record showing that ten per cent, represents the maxi- 
mum loss of dry matter in. modem deep, well-built silos. The 
losses found in siloing com at a number of experiment stations 
during the last ten years have come at or below this figure. It 
is possible to reduce the loss still further by avoiding any spoilt 
silage on the surface, by beginning to feed immediately after the 
filling of the silo, and by feeding the silage out rather rapidly. 
Experiments conducted on a small scale by Prof. King in 1894 
gave losses of only 2 and 3 per cent, of dry matter, on the strength 
of which results, amongst others, he believes that the necessary 
loss of dry matter in the Silo need not exceed 5 per cent. 

Summarizing our considerations concerning the relative losses 
of food materials in the field-curing and siloing of Indian com, 
we may, therefore, say that far from being less economical than 
the former, the silo is more so, under favorable conditions for 
both systems, and that therefore a larger quantity of food ma- 
terials is obtained by filling the com crop into a silo than by any 
other method of preserving it known at the present time. 

What has been said in the foregoing in regard to fodder corn 
applies equally well to other crops put into the silo. A few words 



THE SILOING PROCESS. 15 

will suffice in regard to two of these, clover and alfalfa. Only a 
few accurate siloing experiments have been conducted with clover, 
but enough has been done to show that the necessary losses in 
siloing this crop do not much, if any, exceed those of Indian corn. 
Lawes and Gilbert, of the Rothamsted Experiment Station, Eng- 
land, placed 264,518 pounds of first and second crop clover into 
one of these stone silos, and took out 194,470 pounds of good 
clover silage. Loss in weight, 24.9 per cent. This loss fell, how- 
ever, largely on the water in the clover. The loss of dry matter 
amounted to only 5.1 per cent., very nearly the same amount of 
loss as that which the same experimenter found had taken place 
in a large rick of about forty tons of hay, after standing for two 
years. The loss of protein in the silo amounted to 8.2 per cent. 
In another silo 184,959 pounds of second-crop grass and second- 
crop clover were put in, and 170,941 pounds were taken out. Loss 
in gross weight, 7.6 per cent.; loss of dry matter, 9.7 per cent.; 
of crude protein, 7.8 per cent. 

In a siloing experiment with clover, conducted at the Wiscon- 
sin Station, on a smaller scale, Mr. F. G. Short obtained the fol- 
lowing results: Clover put into the silo, 12,279 pounds; silage 
taken out, 9,283 pounds; loss, 24.4 per cent.; loss of dry matter, 
15.4 per cent.; of protein, 12.7 per cent. 

There is nothing in any of these figures to argue against the 
siloing of green clover as an economical practice. On the other 
hand, we conclude that this method of preserving the clover crop 
is highly valuable, and, in most cases, to be preferred to making 
hay of the crop. 

No extended investigation has been made as to the losses sus- 
tained in the siloing of alfalfa, but there can be little doubt but 
that they .are considerably smaller than in making alfalfa hay, 
if proper precautions guarding against unnecessary losses in the 
silo are taken. According to the testimony of Professor Headden 
of the Colorado Experiment Station, the minimum loss from the 
falling off of leaves and stems in successful alfalfa hay making 
amounts to from 15 to 20 per cent., and in cases where the con- 
ditions have been unfavorable, to as much as 60 and even 66 per 
cent, of the hay crop. Aside from the losses sustained through 
abrasion, rain storms, when these occur, may reduce the value 
of the hay one-half. The losses from either of these sources are 
avoided in preserving the crop in the silo, and in their place a 



16 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

small loss through fermentation occurs, under ordinary favorable 
conditions, amounting to about 10 per cent, or less. 

There is this further advantage to be considered when the 
question of relative losses in the silo and in hay-making or field- 
curing green forage, that hay or corn fodder, whether in shocks 
or in the field or stored under shelter, gets poorer and poorer the 
longer it is kept, as the processes of decomposition are going on 
all the time; in the silo, on the other hand, the loss in food sub- 
stances is not appreciably larger six months after the silo was 
filled than it is one month after, because the air is shut out, so 
that the farmer who puts up a lot of fodder corn for silage in the 
fall can have as much and as valuable feed for his stock in the 
spring, or in fact, the following summer or fall, as he would have 
if he proceeded to feed out all the silage at once. 

"Generally speaking, 3 tons of silage are equal in feeding value 
to one ton of hay. On this basis a much larger amount of digest- 
ible food can be secured from an acre of silage corn than from 
an acre of hay. The food equivalent of 4 tons of hay per acre can 
easily be produced on an acre of land planted to corn." — (Plumb.) 

3. Succulence. Succulent food is nature's food. — We all know 
the difference between a juicy, ripe apple and the green dried fruit. 
In the drying of fruit as well as of green fodder water is the 
main component taken away; with it, however, go certain flavor- 
ing matters that do not weigh much in the chemist's balance, but 
are of the greatest importance in rendering the food material pal- 
atable. It is these same flavoring substances which are washed 
out of the hay with heavy rains, and renders such hay of inferior 
value, often no better than so much straw, not because it does 
not contain nearly as much food substances, like protein, fat, 
starch, sugar, etc. (see Glossary), but because of the substances 
that render hay palatable having been largely removed by the rain. 

The influence of well-preserved silage on the digestion and 
general health of animals is very beneficial, according to the unan- 
imous testimony of good authorities. It is a mild laxative, and 
acts in this way very similarly to green fodders. The good ac- 
counts reported of the prevention of milk fever by the feeding of 
silage are explained by the laxative influence of the feed. 

4. Uniformity. The silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality, 
and always near at hand, available at any time during the whole 
year or winter. No need of fighting the elements, or wading 



ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 17 

through snow or mud to haul it from the field; once in the silo 
the hard work is over, and the farmer can rest easy as to the 
supply of succulent roughage for his stock during the winter. An 
ample supply of succulent feed is of advantage to all classes of 
animals, but perhaps particularly so in case of dairy cows and 
sheep, since these animals are especially sensitive to sudden 
changes in the feed. Also, stock raisers value silage highly on this 
account, for silage is of special value for feeding preparatory to 
turning cattle onto the watery pasture grass in the spring. The 
loss in the weight of cattle on being let out on pasture in spring 
is often so great that it takes them a couple of weeks to get back 
where they were when turned out. When let out in the spring, 
steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter whether silage or dry 
feed has been fed, unless they are fed some grain during the first 
week or two after they are turned out. For more detailed in- 
formation regarding the feeding of silage for beef production, see 
chapter V. 

5. Economy of Storage. — Less room is required for the storage 
in a silo of the product from an acre of land than in cured condi- 
tion in a barn. A ton of hay stored in the mow will fill a space of 
at least 400 cubic feet; a ton of silage, a space of about 50 cubic 
feet. Considering. the dry matter containe\i in both feeds we have 
found that 8,000 pounds of silage contains about as much dry 
matter as 2,325 pounds of hay, or 160 against 465 cubic feet, that 
is, it takes nearly three times as much room to store the same 
quantity of food materials in hay as in silage. In case of field- 
cured fodder corn, the comparison comes out still more in favor of 
the silo, on account of the greater difficulty in preserving the thick 
cornstalks from heating when placed under shelter. According to 
Professor Alvord, an acre of corn, field-cured, stored in the most 
compact manner possible, will occupy a space ten times as great 
as in the form of silage. While hay will contain about 86 per cent, 
of dry matter, cured fodder com often does not contain more than 
60 and sometimes only 50 per cent, of dry matter; the quantities 
of food material in fodder corn that can be stored in a given space 
are, therefore, greatly smaller than in case of hay, and conse- 
quently, still smaller than in case of silage. 

Since smaller barns may be built when silage is fed, there is 
less danger of fire, thus decreasing the cost of insurance. 

6. No Danger of Rain. — Rainy weather is a disadvantage in 



18 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

filling silos as in most other farm operations, but when the silo 
is once filled, the fodder is safe, and the farmer is independent of 
the weather throughout the season. 

If the com has suffered from drought and heat during the fall 
months, it is quite essential to wet the corn either as it goes into 
the silo, or when this has all been filled, in order to secure a good 
quality of silage; and unless the corn is very green when it goes 
into the silo, the addition of water, or water on the corn from 
rain or dew, will do no harm. If the corn is too dry when put into 
the silo, the result will be dry mold, which is prevented by the 
addition of the water, which replaces that which has dried out 
previous to filling if this has been delayed. 

A common practice among successful siloists is to fill the silo 
when the lower leaves of the standing com have dried up about 
half way to the ears. Generally, the corn will be in about the 
proper condition at that time, and there will still ^ be moisture 
enough left in the plants so that the silage will come out in first- 
class condition. 

There must be moisture enough in the corn at time of filling 
the silo, so that the heating processes, which take place soon after, 
and which expel a consi,derable portion of the moisture, can take 
place, and still leave the corn moist after cooling, when the silage 
will remain in practically a uniform condition for several years if 
left undisturbed. But. if, on account of over-ripeness, frosts, or 
excessive drought, the corn is drier than stated, it should be made 
quite wet as stated above, and there is little danger of getting it 
too wet. The writer has filled silo with husked corn fodder about 
Christmas, and as the fodder was thoroughly dried, a %-inch pipe 
was connected with an overhead tank in the barn and arranged 
to discharge into the carrier of the cutter as the cutting took place, 
a No. 18 Ohio cutter being used for that purpose. Although a full 
stream was discharged, and with considerable force, on account 
of the elevation of the tank, and the cut fodder in the silo still 
further wet on top with a long hose attached to a wind force 
pump, it was found, on opening the silo a month later, that none 
too much water had been used; the fodder silage came out in good 
condition, was eaten greedily by the milch cows, and was much 
more valuable than if it had been fed dry from the field. 

Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the case with 
second-crop clover, rowen, etc., on account of rainy weather late 



ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 19 

in the season the silo will furthermore preserve the crop, so that 
the farmer may derive full benefit from it in feeding it to his 
stock. Frosted corn can also be preserved in the silo, and will 
come out a vei'y fair quality of silage if well watered as referred 
to above. 

7. No danger of Late Summer Droughts. — By using the silo 
with clover or other green summer crops early in the season, a 
valuable succulent feed will be at hand at a time when pasture 
in most regions is apt to give out; then again, the silo may be 
filled with corn when this is in the roasting-ear stage, and the 
land thus entirely cleared earlier than when the com is left to 
mature and the corn fodder shocked on the land, making it possible 
to finish fall plowing sooner and to seed the land down to grass 
or winter grain. 

8. Food from Thistles. — Crops unfit for haymaking may be 
preserved in the silo and changed into a palatable food. This is 
not of the importance in this land of plenty of ours that it is, or 
occasionally has been, elsewhere. Under silage crops are included 
a number of crops which could not be used as cattle food in any 
other form than this, as ferns, thistles, all kinds of weeds, etc. In 
case of fodder famine the silo may thus help the farmer to carry 
his cattle through the winter. 

9. Value in Intensive Farming. — More stock can be kept on 
a certain area of land when silage is fed, than is otherwise? the 
case. The silo in this respect furnishes a similar advantage over 
field-curing fodders, as does the soiling system over that of pas- 
turage; in both the siloing and soiling system there is no waste 
of feed, all food grown on the land being utilized for the feeding 
of farm animals, except a small unavoidable loss in case of the 
siloing system incurred by the fermentation processes taking place 
in the silo. 

Pasturing stock is an expensive method of feeding, as far as 
the use of the land goes, and can only be practiced to advantage 
where this is cheap. As the land increases in value, more stock 
must be kept on the same area in order to correspondingly increase 
the profits from the land. The silo here comes in as a material 
aid, and by its adoj^tion, either alone or in connection with the 
soiling system, it will be possible to keep at least twice the number 
of animals on the land that can be done under the more primitive 
system of pasturing and feeding dry feeds during the winter. 



20 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

The experience of Goffart, "the Father of Modem Silage," on this 
point is characteristic. On his farm of less than eighty- six acres 
at Burtin, Prance, he kept a herd of sixty cattle, besides fattening 
a number of steers during the winter, and eye-witnesses assure 
us that he had ample feed on hand to keep one hundred head 
of cattle the year around. 

10. Other Advantages. — Silage feeding does away with all ag- 
gravating corn-stalks in the manure, and prevents their waste 
as well. It excels dry feed for the cheap production of fat beef. 
It keeps young stock thrifty and growing all winter and enables 
the cows to produce milk and butter more economically. Its 
use lessens the labor required to care for a herd, if it is con- 
veniently attached to the barn or feeding shed. It allows the 
spring pastures to be conserved until the opportune moment, and 
can be fed at any time of the year as occasion demands. It enables 
preservation of food which matures at a rainy time of the year, 
when drying would be almost impossible. It does away with the 
system of strictly grain farming where few of the elements are 
returned to the soil. It increases digestive capacity, that is: the 
chemical action that takes place is an aid to digestion that enables 
the cow to eat more than she otherwise could digest and assim- 
ilate, thus making more milk from the same food elements than 
she could make from any other dairy food product. 

We might go on and enumerate many other points in which 
the siloing process has decidedly the advantage over the method 
of field-curing fodder or haymaking; but it is hardly necessary. 
The points given in the preceding will convince any person open 
to conviction, of the superiority of the silo on stock or dairy farms. 
As we proceed with our discussion we shall have occasion to 
refer to several points in favor of silage as compared with dry 
feed, which have not already been touched upon. We shall now, 
first of all, however, proceed to explain the method of building 
silos of all kinds, after which we will discuss the summer silo, 
the wonderful progress of silage in beef production, and of its 
help in maintaining soil fertility. The subject of silage crops 
and of the making and feeding of silage will then follow. 



CHAPTER II. 

HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Before taking up for consideration the more important type 
of silo construction, it will be well to explain briefly a few funda- 
mental principles in regard to the building of silos which are com- 
mon to all types of silo structures. When the farmer understands 
these principles thoroughly, he will be able to avoid serious mis- 
takes in building his silo and will be less bound by specific direc- 
tions, that may not always exactly suit his conditions, than would 
otherwise be the case. What is stated in the following in a few 
words is in many cases the result of dearly-bought experiences 
of pioneers in siloing; many points may seem self-evident now, 
which were not understood or appreciated until mistakes had 
been made and a full knowledge had been accumulated as to the 
conditions under which perfect silage can be secured. 

General Requirements for Silo Structures. 

1. The silo must be air-tight. — ^We have seen that the process, 
of silage making is largely a series of fermentation processes. 
Ba,cteria (small plants or germs, which are found practically 
everywhere) pass into the silo with the corn or the siloed fodder, 
and, after a short time, begin to grow and multiply in it, favored 
by the presence of air and an abundance of feed materials in the 
fodder. The more air at the disposal of the bacteria, the further 
the fermentation process will progress. If a supply of air is ad- 
mitted to the silo from the outside, the bacteria will have a chance 
to continue to grow, and more fodder will therefore be wasted. 
If a large amount of air be admitted, as is usually the case with 
the top layer of silage, the fermentation process will be more far- 
reaching than is usually the case in the lower layers of the silo. 
Putrefactive bacteria will then continue the work of the acid 
bacteria, and the result will be rotten silage. If no further sup- 
ply of air is at hand, except what remains in the interstices be- 
tween the siloed fodder, the bacteria will gradually die out, or 
only such forms will survive as are able to grow in the absence 
of air. 

Another view of the cause of the changes occurring in siloed 

21 



22 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

fodder has been put forwai'd lately, viz., that these are due not to 
bacteria, but to "intramolecnlar respiration" in the plant tissue, 
that is due to a natural dying-off of the life substance of the 
plant cells. From a practical point of view it does not make any 
difference whether the one or the other explanation is correct. 
The facts are with us, that if much air is admitted into the silo, 
through cracks in the wall or through loose packing of the siloed 
mass, considerable losses of food substances will take place, first, 
because the processes of decomposition are then allowed to go 
be3'ond the point necessary to bring about the changes by which 
the silage differs from green fodder, and, second, because the de- 
composition will cause more or less of the fodder to spoil or mold. 

2. The silo must be deep. Depth is essential in building a 
silo, so as to have the siloed fodder under considerable pressure, 
which will cause it to pack well and leave as little air as possible 
in the interstices between the cut fodder, thus reducing the losses 
of food materials to a mininum. The early silos built in this 
country or abroad were at fault in this respect; they were shallow 
structures, not over 12-15 ft. perhaps, and were longer than they 
were deep. Experience showed that it was necessary to weight 

^heavily the siloed fodder placed in these silos, in order to avoid 
getting a large amount of moldy silage. In our modern silos no 
weighting is necessary, since the material placed in the silo is 
sufficiently heavy from the great depth of it to largely exclude 
the air in the siloed "fodder and thus secure a good quality of 
silage. In case of deep silos the loss from spoiled silage on 
the top is smaller in proportion to the whole amount of silage 
stored; there is also less surface in proportion to the silage stored, 
hence a smaller loss occurs while the silage is being fed out, 
and since the silage is more closely packed, less air is admitted 
from the top. As the silage packs better in a deep silo than 
in a shallow one, the former kind of silos will hold more silage 
per cubic foot than the latter; this is plainly seen from the figures 
given in the table on page 25. Silos built during late years have 
generally been over thirty feet deep, and many are forty feet 
deep or more. 

3. The silo must have smooth, perpendicular wails, which will 
allow the mass to settle without forming cavities along the walls. 
In a deep silo the fodder will settle several feet during the first 
few days after filling. Any unevenness in the wall will prevent 



SIZE OF THE SILO. 23 

the mass from settling uniformly, and air spaces in the mass thus 
formed will cause the surrounding silage to spoil. 

4. The walls of the silo must be rigid and very strong so as 
not to spring when the siloed fodder settles. The lateral (out- 
ward) pressure of cut fodder corn when settling at the time of 
filling is considerable, and increases with the depth of the silage 
at the rate of about eleven pounds per square foot for each foot of 
depth. At a depth of 20 feet there is, therefore, an outward pres- 
sure of 220 pounds; at 30 feet, 530 pounds, etc. In case of a 16- 
foot square silo where the sill is 30 feet below the top of the silage 
the side pressure on the lower foot of the wall would be about 
16x330, or 5,280 pounds. 

It is because of this great pressure that it is so difficult to 
make large rectangular silos deep enough to be economical, and 
it is because the walls of rectangular silos always spring more or 
less under the pressure of the silage that this seldom keeps as 
well in them as it does in those whose walls cannot spring. 

As the silage in the lower part of the silo continues to settle, 
the stronger outward pressure there spreads the walls more than 
higher up and the result is the wall may be actually forced away 
from the silage so that air may enter from above; and even if 
this does not occur the pressure against the sides will be so 
much lessened above by the greater spreading below that if the 
walls are at all open, air will more readilj' enter through them. 

In the round wooden silos every board acts as a hoop and as 
the wood stretches but little lengthwise there can be but little 
spreading of such walls, and in the case of stave silos the iron 
hoops prevent any spreading, and it is on account of these facts 
that the round silo is rapidly replacing every other form. 

After the silage has once settled, there is no lateral pressure 
in the silo; cases are on record where a filled silo has burned down 
to the ground with the silage remaining practically intact as a 
tall stack. 

Other points of importance in silo building which do not apply 
to all kinds of silos, will be considered when we come to describe 
different kinds of silo structures. Several questions present them- 
selves at this point for consideration, viz., how large a silo shall 
be built, where it is to be located, and what form of silo is pre- 
ferable under different conditions? 



24 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

On the Size of Silo Required. 

In planning a silo the first point to be decided is how large it 
shall be made. We will suppose that a farmer has a herd of 
twenty- five cows, to which he wishes to feed silage during the 
winter season, say for 180 days. We note at this point that silage 
will not be likely to give best results with milch cows, or with 
any other class of farm animals, when it furnishes the entire 
portion of the dry matter of the feed ration. Variation in the size 
of the animals will determine whether each cow is to receive 
20, 30 or 40 pounds per day. As a rule, it will not be well to 
feed over forty pounds of silage daily per head. If this quantity 
be fed daily, on an average for a season of 180 days, we have for 
the twenty- five cows 180,000 pounds, or ninety tons. On account 
of the fermentation processes taking place in the silo, we have 
seen that there is an unavoidable loss of food materials during 
the siloing period, amounting to, perhaps, 10 per cent; we 
must, therefore, put more than the quantity given into the silo. 
If ninety tons of silage is wanted, about one hundred tons of 
fodder corn must be placed in the silo; we figure, therefore, that 
we shall need about four tons of silage per head for the winter, 
but, perhaps five tons per head would be a safer calculation, and 
provide for some increase in the size of the herd. 

Corn silage will weigh from thirty pounds, or less, to toward 
fifty pounds per cubic foot, according to the depth in the silo 
from which it is taken, and the amount of moisture which it 
contains. We may take forty pounds as an average weight of a 
cubic foot of corn silage. One ton of silage will, accordingly, take 
up fifty cubic feet; and 100 tons, 5,000 cubic feet. If a rectangular 
one-hundred-ton silo is to be built, say 12x14 feet, it must then 
have a height of 30 feet. If a circular silo is wanted the following 
dimensions will be about right: Diameter, 14 feet; height of silo, 
30 feet, etc. In the same way, a silo holding 200 tons of corn 
or clover silage may be built of the dimensions 14x18x40 feet, 
16x16x39 feet, or if round, diameter, 18 feet, height, 37 feet, etc. 

Since the capacity of round silos is not as readily computed 
as in case of a rectangular silo, we give on following page a table 
which shows at a glance the approximate number of tons of silage 
that a round silo, of a diameter from 8 to 20 feet, and 20 feet to 
50 feet deep, will hold. 

Table III shows readily how much silage is required to keep 



SIZE OF THE SILO. 



25 



Table II. — Capacity of Round Silos. 

Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos, for Well-Matured 
Corn Silage, in Tons. 



Height of 
Silo inside, Feet 



Inside Diameter of Silo, Feet. 



11 12 13 14 15 16 17 



19 



20 



20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 



94 
100 
105 
109 
114 
118 
121 
125 
128 
132 
135 



102 
106 
110 
115 
119 
124 
129 
134 
139 
144 
150 



87 
91 
95 

99 
103 
107 
111 
116 
120 
125 
131 
137 
143 
149 
155 
161 
167 
173 
180 
187 
193 
201 
207 
215 

2T> 

229 
236 



104 
110 
116 
121 
126 
132 
1.3b 
141 
148 
155 
162 
169 
176 
183 
190 
147 
204 
211 
218 
225 
233 
240 
247 
254 
261 



120 
125 
130 
136 
140 
145 
1.50 
156 
162 
169 
175 
183 
190 
200 
2P 
220 
228 
236 
244 
252 
2f.l 
269 
277 
285 
293 
.301 
310 



145 
155 
161 
170 
177 
185 
193 
200 
208 
217 
226 
235 
245 
256 
267 
279 
290 
300 
310 
320 
3,30 
340 
350 
.361 
371 
382 



eight to 156 cows for six inonths, feeding them an average of 40 
pounds a day, and the dimensions of circular silos as well as the 
area of land required to furnish the different amounts of feed 
given, computed at 15 tons per acre. The amount of silage given 
in the table refers to the number of tons in the silo after all 
shrinkage has occurred; as the condition of the corn as placed 
in the silo differs considerably, these figures may vary in different 
years or with different crops of corn, and should not be inter- 
preted too strictly; the manner of filling the silo will also deter- 
mine how much corn the silo will hold; if the silo is filled with 
well-matured corn, and after this has settled for a couple of days, 
filled up again, it will hold at least 10 per cent, more silage than 
when it is filled rapidly and not refilled after settling. To the 
person about to fill a silo for the first time, it is suggested that 



26 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



Table III.— Showing Required Acreage and Stock Feeding Capacity 
for Silos of Various Sizes. 



Capacity in Tons 



Acres to Fill 
15 Tons to Acre 



(jo»s It will keep 

6 months. 40 lbs. 

teed per da.v 



10x20 


1 
30 


1 
3. 


8 




10x24 


36 


3. 


10 




10x28 


44 


3. 


11 




10x52 


53 


3.4 


14 




10 X 40 


75 


4.6 


19 




12x20 


45 


3. 


11 




12x24 


55 


3.2 


13 




12x28 


66 


4.1 


15 




12x32 


84 


5. 


20 




12x40 


121 


7.3 


27 




14x20 


60 


4.2 


15 




14x22 


66 


4.5 


17 




14x24 


73 


4.7 


19 




14x28 


90 


5.6 


22 




14x52 


110 


6.7 


27 




14x40 


150 


9.2 


37 




16x24 


95 


6.2 


24 




16x28 


111 


7.2 


29 




16x52 


130 


8.7 


55 




16x40 


180 


12. 


49 




18x30 


150 


10.2 


41 




18x36 


190 


13. 


50 




18x40 


229 


15.3 


62 




18x46 


277 


18.8 


77 




20x30 


- 185 


12.5 


50 




20x40 


279 


18.8 


77 




20x50 


382 


25.5 


104 




20x60 


500 


32. 


136 





it requires a "good crop" to yield 15 tons per acre, and as a 
"little too much is about right," be sure to plant enough to fill 
the silo full, being guided by the condition of soil, etc., under 
his control. 

On the Form of Silos. 

The first kind of silos built, in this country or abroad, were 
simply holes or pits in the ground, into which the fodder was 
dumped, and the pit was then covered with a layer of dirt and, 
sometimes at least, weighted with planks and stones. Then, when 
it was found that a large proportion of the feed would spoil by 
this crude method, separate silo structures were built, first of 
stone, and later on, of wood, brick or cement. As previously 



ON THE FORM OF SILOS. 27 

stated, the first separate silos built were rectangular, shallow struc- 
tures, with a door opening- at one end. The silos of the French 
pioneer siloist, August Goffart, were about 16 feet high and 40x16 
feet at the bottom. Another French silo built about fifty years ago, 
was 206x21% feet and 15 feet deep, holding nearly 1.500 tons of 
silage. Silos of a similar type, but of smaller dimensions, were 
built in this country in the early stages of silo building. Ex- 
perience has taught siloists that it was necessary to weight the 
fodder heavily in these silos, in order to avoid the spoiling of 
large quantities of silage. In Goff art's silos, boards were thus 
placed on top of the siloed fodder, and the mass was weighted at 
the rate of 100 pounds per square foot. 

It was found, however, after some time that this heavy weight- 
ing could be dispensed with by making the silos deep, and grad- 
ually the deep silos came more and more into use. These silos 
were first built in this country in the latter part of the eighties; 
at the present time none but silos at least twenty to twenty-four 
feet deep are built, no matter of what form or material they 
are made, and most silos built are at least twenty-four to thirty 
feet deep or more. 

Since 1892 the cylindrical form of silos has become more and 
more general. These silos have the advantage over all other 
kinds in point of cost and convenience, as well as quality of the 
silage obtained. We shall, later on, have an occasion to refer to 
the relative cost of the various forms of silos, and shall here 
only mention a few points in favor of the round silos. 

1. Round silos can be built cheaper than square ones, because 
it takes less lumber per cubic foot capacity, and because lighter 
material rhay be used in their construction. The sills and stud- 
dings here do no work except to support the roof, since the lining 
acts as a hoop to prevent spreading of the walls. 

2. One of the essentials in silo building is that there shall be 
a minimum of surface and wall exposure of the silage, as both 
the cost and the danger from Josses through spoiling are thereby 
reduced. The round silos are superior to all other forms in 
regard to this point, as will be readily seen from an example: A 
rectangular silo, 16x32x24 feet, has the same number of square 
feet of wall surface as a square silo, 24x24 feet, and of the same 
depth, or as a circular silo 30 feet in diameter and of the same 
depth; but these silos will hold about the following quantities of 



28 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

silage: Rectangular silo, 246 tons; square silo, 276 tons; circular 
silo, 358 tons. Less lumber will, therefore, be needed to hold 
a certain quantity of silage in case of square silos than in case 
of rectangular ones, and less for cylindrical silos than for square 
ones, the cylindrical form being, therefore, the most economical 
of the three types. 

3. Silage of all kinds will usually begin to spoil after a few 
days, if left exposed to the air; hence the necessity of considering 
the extent of surface exposure of silage in the silo while it is 
being fed out. In a deep silo there is less silage exposed to the 
surface layer in proportion to the contents than in a shallow one. 
Experience has taught us that if silage is fed down at a rate 
slower than 1.2 inches daily, molding is liable to set in. About 
two inches of the top layer of the silage should be fed out daily 
during cold weather in order to prevent the silage from spoiling; 
in warm weather about three inches must be taken off daily; 
if a deeper layer of silage can be fed off daily, there will be less 
waste of food materials; some farmers thus plan to feed off 5 or 6 
inches of silage daily. The form of the silo must therefore be 
planned, according to the size of the herd, with special reference 
to this point. Professor King estimates that there should be a 
feeding surface in the silo of about five square feet per cow in 
the herd; a herd of thirty cows will then require 150 square feet 
of feeding surface, or the inside diameter of the silo should be 
14 feet; for a herd of forty cows a silo with a diameter of 16 
feet will be required; for fifty cows, a diameter of 18 feet; for one 
hundred cows, a diameter of 25 1^ feet, etc. 

In choosing diameters and depths for silos for particular herds, 
individual needs and conditions must decide which is best. It 
may be said, in general, that for the smaller sizes of silos the 
more shallow ones will be somewhat cheaper in construction and 
be more easily filled with small powers. For large herds the 
deeper types are best and cheapest. 

One of the common mistakes made in silo construction is that 
of making it too large in diameter for the amount of stock to be 
fed silage. Whenever silage heats and molds badly on or below 
the feeding surface heavy loss in feeding value is being sustained, 
and in such cases the herd should be increased so that the losses 
may be prevented by more rapid feeding. (King.) 

In this connection the following table furnished by the Animal 



DIAMETER AND DEPTH OF THE SILO. 



29 



Husbandry Department of the Nebraska Station will be of interest. 
It will be noted that for summer feeding- at least 15 dairy cows, 
or 21 beef cattle, for instance, will be necessary to consume the 
525 pounds of silag-e that should be removed daily from a 10-foot 
diameter surface to keep it from spoiling. In winter, 6 or 7 cows 
would be sufficient. 

Table IV. — Rate of Feeding from Silos of Different Diameters. 



Diam- 
eter, 


Approximate minimum 
pounds to be fed daily 


*Approximate num 
to keep the si 


ber of the different kinds of stock 
age from spoiling in summer 


feet 


Summer 


Winter 


Horses 


500-lb. 
calves 


Stock 
cattle 


Beef 
cattle 


Dairy 
cows 


Sheep 


10 
12 
14 
16 
18 

20 


525 
755 
1,050 
1.540 
1.700 
2,100 


265 

578 
515 
670 
850 
1,050 


48 

69 

94 

122 

155 

191 


44 

63 

86 

112 

142 

175 


26 
58 
* 52 
67 
85 
105 


21 
50 
41 
54 
68 
84 


15 
19 
26 
34 
42 
53 


175 

252 
344 
446 
567 
700 



*If the silo is to be used for winter feeding only, it will require 
only one-half as many of each kind of stock to keep the silage in 
good condition as where it is used for summer feeding. 

The Nebraska Station also gives the following daily ration of 
silage for various kinds and weights of stock. It should be re- 
membered, however, that these amounts are only approximate 
and vary considerably in different sections or under special tests. 
At the end of a 90-day test at the Brookings, S. D., station in 
1912, yearling steers were consuming 70 pounds of silage per head 
daily. (See page 124.) 

Table V. — Approximate Daily Ration of Silage. 



Kind of Stock 



Horses — 

Colts 

Stock horses. . . . 

Work horses . . . . 
Cattle- 
Calves 

Stock cattle 

Beef cows 

Dairy cows 

Fattening cattle. 
Sheep — 

Stock sheep 

Fattening sheep. 



Weight 


Fed 


per day 


Pounds 


Pounds 


500 - 




5 


1,200 




12 


1,500 




10 


500 




12 


1,000 




20 


1.300 ■ 




50 


1.000 




40 


1,200 




25 

5 
3 



30 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Location of the Silo. 

The location of the silo is a matter of great importance, which 
has to be decided upon at the start. The feeding of the silage is 
an every-day job during the whole winter and spring, and twice 
a day at that. Other things being equal, the nearest available 
place is therefore the best. The silo should be as handy to get 
at from the barn as possible. The condition of the ground must 
be considered. If the ground is dry outside the barn, the best 
plan to follow is to build the silo there, in connection with the 
barn, going four feet to six feet below the surface, and providing 
for door opening directly into the barn. The bottom of the silo 
should be on or below the level where the cattle stand, and, if 
practicable, the silage should be moved out and placed before the 
cows at a single handling. While it is important to have the silo 
near at hand, it should be so located, in case the silage is used 
for milk production, that silage odors to not penetrate the whole 
stable, at milking or other times. Milk is very sensitive to odors, 
and unless care is taken to feed silage after milking, and to have 
pure air, free from silage odor, in the stables at the time of 
milking, there will be a silage flavor to the milk. This will not 
be sufficiently pronounced to be noticed by most people, and 
some people cannot notice it at all; but when a person is sus- 
picious, he can generally discover it. So far as is known this 
odor is not discernible in either butter or cheese made from 
silage-flavored milk, nor does it seem to affect the keeping qualities 
of the milk in any way. 

Different Types of Silo Structures. 

Silos may be built of wood, stone, brick, cement, tile or metal, 
or partly of one and partly of another of these materials. Wooden 
silos may be built ~ of several layers of thin boards nailed to up- 
rights, or of single planks (staves), or may be plastered inside. 
The material used will largely be determined by local conditions: 
where lumber is cheap, and stone high, wooden silos will generally 
be built;' where the opposite is true, stone or brick silos will have 
the advantage in point of chea,pnsss, while concrete and clay 
block silos are likely to be preferred where great permanency is 
desired or where cobble-stones are at hand in abundance, and 
lumber or stone are hard to get at a reasonable cost. So far as 
the quality of the silage made in any of these kinds of silos is con- 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF SILO STRUCTURES. 31 

cerned, there is no difference when tlie silos are properly built. 
The longevity of concrete and tile silos is usually greater than 
that of wooden silos, since the latter are more easily attacked 
by the silage juices and are apt to decay in places after a number 
of years, unless special precautions are taken to preserve them. 
A well-built and well-cared-for wooden silo should, however, last 
almost indefinitely. 

As regards the form of the silo, it may be built in rectangular 
form, square, octagon or round. We have already seen that the 
most economical of these is ordinarily the round form, both be- 
cause in such silos there is less wall space per cubic unit of 
capacity, and in case of wooden round silos, lighter material can 
be used in their construction. The only place where silos of 
square or rectangular form are built now is inside of barns, where 
they fit in better than a round structure. We shall later on give 
directions for building silos inside of a barn, but shall now go 
over to a discussion of the various forms of round silos that are 
apt to be met with. More round wooden silos have been built 
during late years in this country than of all other kinds of silos 
combined, and this type of silo, either built of uprights lined in- 
side and outside with two layers of half-inch boards, or of one 
thickness of staves, will doubtless be the main silo type of the 
future; hence we shall give full information as to their building, 
and shall then briefly speak of the other forms mentioned which 
may be considered preferable in exceptional cases. 

Round Wooden Silos. 

Round wooden silos were first described, and their use advo- 
cated, in Bulletin No. 28, issued by the Wisconsin Station in 
July, 1891, at a time when lumber of a good quality could be se- 
cured at much less cost than at present. This type has come to 
be known as the Wisconsin or King silo, named after the late 
Prof. King, the originator. The first detailed and illustrated de- 
scription was published in the above bulletin; since that time 
it has been described in several bulletins and reports issued by 
the Station nientioned and in numerous publications from other 
Experiment Stations. This type, and the one to be described in 
the following, the stave silo, are practically the only kind of 
wooden silos that have been built in this country during late 
years except where unusual conditions have prevailed that would 
make some other kind of silo construction preferable. 



32 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

The Kind of Woods for Silos.— Conclusions drawn from Bulletin 
No. 100, Iowa State College, place the merits of woods for silo 
use as follows: 1, Redwood; 2, Cypress; 3, Oregon Fir; 4, Tam- 
arack; 5, White Pine; 6, Long-leaf Yellow Pine. 

The following description of the King silo is taken from Bul- 
letins Nos. 83 and 125 of the Wisconsin Station: 

The Foundation. — There should be a good, substantial cement 
foundation for all forms of wood silos, and the woodwork should 
everywhere be at least 12 inches above the earth, to prevent decay 
from dampness. There are few conditions where it will not be 
desirable to have the bottom of the silo 5 feet or more below the 
feeding floor of the stable, and this will require not less than 4 
to 6 feet of stone, brick, or concrete wall. For a silo 50 feet deep 
the foundation wall of stone should be 1.5 to 2 feet thick. 

Bottom of the Silo. — After the silo has been completed the 
ground forming the bottom should be thoroughly tamped so as to 
be solid, and then covered with two or three inches of good con- 
crete made of 1 of cement to 3 or 4 of sand or gravel. The 
amount of silage which will spoil on a hard clay floor will not be 
large, but enough to pay a good interest on the money invested 
in the cement floor. If the bottom of the silo is in dry sand or 
gravel the cement bottom is imperative to shut out the soil air. 

The Superstructure. — The wood superstructure of the King silo 
has a wall 5 or 6 inches thick, whereas the foundation wall is 
18 to 24 inches thifck; it is evident, therefore, that there must be 
a shoulder of the wall 12 to 19 inches wide that must project 
either into the silo pit or outward beyond the sill. 

How to Place the Frame on the Foundation. — Figure 1 illus- 
trates two methods of placing the frame on the foundation. A 
is the right way. B is the wrong way. In B Fig. 1 the shoulder 
of the foundation wall projects into the silo pit. This method is 
permissible when the silo floor is not more than 1 foot below the 
top of the wall. If the floor of the silo is three feet or more below 
the top of the wall as in B Fig. 1, then this shoulder interferes 
with the proper settling of the silage and the silage moulds or 
rots just above the shoulder next to the silo and usually below 
the shoulder also. This rotting is commonly ascribed to the loosen- 
ing of the sill or the foundation allowing air to enter. In most 
cases, however, it is plainly not due to this cause, but is due to the 
projecting shoulder which interferes with the settling of the 



ROUND WOODEN SILOS. 



33 






Fig, 1. — Showing two methods of placing the wood, brick lined or 
lathed and plastered silo on a stone foundation. A shows the 
silo set with upper portion flush with the inside of the stone 
wall, and B shows the upper portion flush with the outside of 
the stone wall. A is the right v/ay; B is the wrong way. 



silage. Many silos have been abandoned on this account, so 
serious has been the loss from rotting. This shoulder should 
never project into the silo pit. 

Forming the Sill. — The sill may be made of a single 2x4 cut 
into two foot lengths with the ends beveled so that they may be 
toe -nailed together to form a circle. Two other methods are also 
illustrated in Fig. 2, one being a double thickness with broken 
joints and the other using pieces cut to the curvature of the silo. 
It will be noted that the latter construction eliminates the air- 
spaces between the silo and the outer sheeting which are evident 
in the first two mentioned. These spaces admit air so that the 
space between the studding is not a dead air space. 

Setting the Studding. — The studding of the all-wood round silo 
need not be greater than 2x4, but they should be set as close 
together as one foot from center to center, as represented in 
Fig. 6. This number of studs is not required for strength but 
they are needed in order to bring the two layers of lining very 



34 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 




Fig. 2. — Showing three methods of making a sill or plate for 
Gurler or King Silo. A shows sill made of a single thickness 
of 2x4's cut in two-foot lengths; B shows sill made of two 
thicknesses of 2x4's laid to break joints; C shows 2x4 sawed 
out of 2x6 plank. C is the best method, since the sheeting then 
fits the sill making a tight joint, whereas in A and B a tight 
joint between sheeting and sill or plate cannot be secured. Ob- 
serve that the sill is placed near the inner edge of the founda- 
tion. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 



35 



close together, so as to press the paper closely and prevent air 
from entering where the paper laps. 

Where studding longer than 20 feet are neoded, short lengths 
may be lapped one foot and simply spiked together before they 
are set in place on the wall. This will be cheaper than to pay 
the higher price for long lengths. All studding should be given the 
exact length desired before putting them in place. 




Fig. 3. — Detail of construction of wall of King silo. Three thick- 
nesses of %" sheeting inside with 2 thicknesses of acid-proof 
paper, and on the outside one thickness of sheeting, 1 of tar 
felt, and 1 of clap boards. Observe that the shoulder of the 
foundation is outside. 



36 



■ HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



To stay the studding a post should be set in the ground in the 
center of the silo long enough to reach about five feet above the 
sill, and to this stays may be nailed to hold in place the alternate 
studs until the lower five feet of outside sheeting has been put on. 
The studs should be set first at the angles formed in the sill and 
carefully stayed and plumbed on the side toward the center. When 
a number of these have been set they should be tied together 
by bending a strip of half-inch sheeting around the outside as 
high up as a man can reach, taking care to plumb each stud on 
the side before nailing. When the alternate studs have b,:en set 
in this way the balance may be placed and toe-nailed to the 
sill and stayed to the rib, first plumbing them sideways and 
toward the center. 

Setting Studding for Doors. — On the side of the silo where the 
doors are to be placed the studding should be set double and the 




Fig. 6.— Showing the plan of studding for the all-wood, brick-lined 
or lathed-and-plastered silo. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 



37 



distance apart to give the desired widtli. A stud should be set 
between the two door studs as though no door were to be there, 
and the doors cut out at the places desired afterwards. The con- 
struction of the door is represented in Fig. 7. 

The doors are usually made about 2 feet wide and from 2% 
to 3 feet high, and placed one above the other at suitable dis- 
tances apart. It has been suggested that to insure security a 
strip of tar paper should be placed the entire length of the silo 
on the inside over the doors. 




v/i^///^//<^//</Y//iyY//-^Y' 




. 


. ® 






. ® 


. 





• 














• 


• 


• 




. 
















' 









o 





Fig. 7. — Showing the construction of the door for the all-wood silo. 



38 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Silo Sheeting and Siding. — The character of the siding and 
sheeting will vary considerably according to conditions and the 
size of the silo. 

Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet inside and 
not much attention need be paid to frost, a single layer of beveled 
siding, rabbetted on the inside of the thick edge, deep enough 
to receive the thin edge of the board below, will be all that is 
absolutely necessary on the outside for strength and protection 
against weather. 

If basswood is used for siding, care should be taken to paint 
it at once, otherwise it will warp badly if it gets wet before 
painting. 

In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, carrying the 
work upward until staging is needed, following this at once with 
the siding. Two 8-penny nails should be used in each board in 
every stud, and to prevent the walls from getting "out of round" 
the succeeding course of boards should begin on the next stud, 
thus making the ends of the boards break joints. 

When the stagings are put up, new stays should be tacked 
to the studs above, taking care to plumb each one from side 
to side; the siding itself will bring them into place and keep them 
plumb the other way, if care is taken to start new courses as 
described above. 

Forming the Plate. — When the last staging is up the plate 
should be formed by spiking 2x4's cut in two-foot lengths, in the 
manner of the sill, and as represented in Fig. 8, down upon the 
tops of the studs, using two courses, making the second break 
joints with the first. A still better method is to use 2x6 plank, 
cut to the circle as shown in C, Fig. 2. 

The Lining of the Wooden Silo. — There are several ways of 
making a good lining for the all-wood round silo, but whichever 
method is adopted it must be kept in mind that there are two 
very important ends to be secured with a certainty. These are 
(1) a lining which shall be and remain strictly air-tight, (2) a 
lining which will be reasonably permanent. 

Lining of Half-inch Boards and Paperr — Where paper is used 
to make the joints between boards air-tight, as represented in 
Fig. 3, it is extremely important that a quality which will not 
decay, and which is both acid and water-proof be used. A paper 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 



39 



which is not acid and water-proof will disintegrate at the joints 
in a very short time, and thus leave the lining very defective. 

The best paper for silo purposes with which we are acquainted 
is a 5-ply Giant P. and B. brand manufactured by the Standard 
Paint Co., of Chicago and New York. It is thick, strong, and acid 
and water-proof. A silo lining with two thicknesses of good 
fencing having only small knots, and these thoroughly sound and 
not black, will make an excellent lining. Great care should be 
taken to have the two layers of boards break joints at their 
centers, and the paper should lap not less than 8 to 12 inches. 

The great danger with this type of lining will be that the 
boards may not press the two layers of paper together close 




Fig. 8. — Showing construction of conical roof of round silo, where 
rafters are not used. The outer circle is the lower edge of the 
roof, the second is the plate, the third and fourth circles are 
hoops to which the roof boards are nailed. The view is a plan 
looking up from the under side. 



40 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



enough but that some air may arise between the two sheets 
where they overlap, and thus gain access to the silage. It would 
be an excellent precaution to take to tack clown closely with 
small carpet tacks the edges of the paper where they overlap, and 
if this is done a lap of 4 inches will be sufficient. 

The first layer of lining should be put on with 8-penny nails, 
two in each board and stud, and the second or inner layer with 
10-penny nails, the fundamental object being to draw the two 
layers of boards as closely together as possible. 

Such a lining as this will be very durable because the paper 
will keep all the lumber dry except the inner layer of half-inch 
boards, and this will be kept wet by the paper and silage until 
empty, and then the small thickness of wood will dry too quickly 
to permit rotting to set in. 

A still more substantial lining of the same type may be se- 
cured by using two layers of paper between three layers of boards, 
as represented in Fig. 3, and if the climate is not extremely severe, 
or if the silo is only to be fed from in the summer, it would 
be b,etter to do away with the layer of she«^ting and paper outside, 
putting on the inside, thus securing two layers of paper and three 
layers of boards for the lining with the equivalent of only 2 inches 
of lumber. 

The Silo Roof. — Roofs on silos make big savings in keeping 
the silage from drying out and blowing around. They keep 



^trOOF SIDE l//f>V 



'J' /rt omtftrrM 




Fig. 9.— Showing construction and details of one style of roof 
(From Nebr. Bui. No. 138.) 



THE "\nSCOXSIN" SILO. 41 

the; wind out and make the silo warm in winter, free from snow 
and freezing-, and the silage in good shape for feeding. 

The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several ways, but 
the simplest type of construction and the one requiring the least 
amount of material is that represented in Fig. 8, which is the cone. 

If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter no rafters 
need be used, and only a single circle like that in the center of 
Fig. 8, this is made of 2-inch stuff cut in sections in the form 
of a circle and two layers spiked together, breaking joints. 

The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the inner circle 
and to the plate, as shown in the drawing, the boards having been 
sawed diagonally, making the wide and narrow ends the same 
relative widths as the circumference of the outer edge of the 
roof and of the inner circle. Thus a 10-foot board 8 inches wide 
would be sawed so as to make two 10-foot lengths, each being 6% 
inches wide at one end and iVi inches wide at the other. 

If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet it will be 
necessary to use two or three hoops according to diameter. 

The conical roof may be covered with ordinary shingles, split- 
ting those wider than 8 inches. By laying the butts of the shingles 
Vs to Vi of an inch apart it is not necessary to taper any of the 
shingles except a few courses near the peak of the roof. 

The prepared roofings, such as "Ruberoid" or "Paroid" or pre- 
pared gravel roofing are preferred to shingles for a silo roof, since 
they make a tighter roof which retains the heat in winter. 

In laying the shingles to a true circle, and with the right 
exposure to the weather, a good method is to use a strip of 
wood as a. radius which works on a center set at the peak of the 
roof and provided with a nail or pencil to make a mark on the 
shingle where the butts of the next course are to come. The 
radius may be bored with a series of holes the right distance 
apart to slip over the center pivot, or the nail may be drawn and 
reset as desired. Some carpenters file a notch in the shingling 
hatchet, and use this to bring the shingle to place. 

Ventilation of the Silo. 

Every silo which has a roof should be provided with ample 
ventilation to keep the under side of the roof dry, and in the case 
of wood silos, to prevent the walls and lining from rotting. One 



42 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

of the most serious mistakes in the early construction of wood 
silos was the making of the walls with dead-air spaces, which, 
on account of dampness from the silage, led to rapid "dry-rot" 
of the lining. 

In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is important to 
provide ample ventilation for the spaces between the studs, as 
well as for the roof and the inside of the silo, and a good method 
of doing this is represented in Fig. 4, where the lower portion 
represents the sill and the upper the plate of the silo. Between 
each pair of studs where needed a li/4-inch auger hole to admit 
air is bored through the siding and sheeting and covered wuth 
a piece of wire netting to keep out mice and rats. At the top of 
the silo on the inside, the lining is only covered to v-^ithin two 
inches of the plate and this space is covered with wire netting 
to prevent silage from being thrown over when filling. This 
arrangement permits dry air from outside to enter at the bottom 
between each pair of studs and to pass up and into the silo, thus 
keeping the lining and studding dry and at the same time drying 
the under side of the roof and the inside of the lining as fast as 
exposed. In those cases where the sill is made of 2x4's cut In 
2 -foot lengths there will be space enough left between the curved 
edge of the siding and sheeting and the sill for air to enter so that 
no holes need be bored as describ d above and represented in 
Fig. 4. The openings at the plate should always be provided and 
the silo should have some sort of ventilator in the roof. This 
ventilator may take the form of a cupola to serve for an orna- 
ment as well, br it may be a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to 24 
inches in diameter, rising a foot or two through the peak of the 
roof. 

A word of caution is sounded in the Wisconsin Bulletin No. 
125 regarding the above method of ventilation: 

"It will be readily understood that if these ventilators between 
the studs are left open in winter they will act as chimneys: they 
will maintain a constant draft between the studding, which will 
cool off and freeze the silage more severely than it would if there 
were no sheeting at all outside the studding. If the silage is for 
winter feeding, and 99 per cent of the silage is so fed, then more 
care should be exercised than at present in Wisconsin to prevent 
this severe freezing. In order to do this, provision must be made 
for closing these ventilators both at the top and at the bottom, 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 



43 




Fig. 4. — Showing the method of ventilating between studding. An 
auger hole is bored through the outer siding just above sill, 
between each pair of studding as at X, and a screen nailed 
over hole inside to keep out mice. A similar hole is bored 
through the inner sheeting between each pair of studs at the 
top of the silo just under the plates, as at W. Auger holes are 
used at X and W, so that the holes may be closed in cold 
weather with corks. 



44 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

so as to convert the hollow wall into a real dead-air space. There 
is no need of building the wall air-tight outside, as shown in Fig. 
3, with two thickness of sheeting with paper between, unless there 
is provision for closing the ventilators in winter. 

"The writer has seen a number of these silos in which the 
silage froze severely. In most instances no attempt was made 
to close the ventilators, and the few instances when it was at- 
tempted only the lower ventilators on the outside were closed. 
This is not enough for if the upper ventilators at W, Fig. 4, are 
left open the hollow wall will cool off rapidly and the air space 
serve no purpose as protection against frost. 

"The invention of the King silo came in response to an urgent 
demand for a type of construction that would avoid the corners 
and other serious and aggravating defects of silos, as previously • 
constructed. It marked an epoch in silo building. Hundreds of 
silos of this type have been constructed. They have not been 
confined to Wisconsin, but have been widely distributed. They 
have been in use the past ten years, and have demonstrated 
their success. They are no longer an experiment. However, the 
very wide and general use of this type of silo under a great 
variety of conditions of climate and local environment has brought 
out some of the demerits of this type of construction which at 
the outset could not have been foreseen. For instance, the wood 
lining has been found less satisfactory than cement, and hence 
It is recommended that these silos be cement lined. Many of the 
King silos are lathed and plastered and have proven very satis- 
factory, having done service for ten years. 

"Clap boards have been found unsatisfactory for the outer 
siding and it is recommended that steel siding or some of the 
roofing paper, ruberoid, or lath and plaster be used in their stead 
as will be described later." 

Painting- the Silo Lining. 

It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it will not become 
wholly or partly saturated with the silage juices. This being true, 
when the lining is again exposed when feeding the silage out. 
the paint greatly retards the drying" of the wood work and the 
result is decay sets in, favored by prolonged dampness. For this 
reason it is best to leave a wood lining naked or to use some anti- 
.«eptic which does not form a water-proof coat. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 45 

Th,e cost of such a silo as that described in the foregoing 
pages, is estimated by Prof. King at about 12 cents per square 
foot of outside surface, when the lining consists of two layers 
of half-inch split fencing, with a 3-ply Giant P. and B. paper bj- 
tween, and with one layer of split fencing outside, covered with 
rabbetted house siding. If built inside of the barn, without a roof 
and not painted, the cost would be reduced 5 cents per square foot, 
or more. Silos of this type, 30 feet deep, built outside, provided 
with a roof and including 6 feet of foundations are stated to cost 
as follows: 13 feet inside diameter (80 tons capacity), $183.00; 
15 feet diameter (105 tons capacity), $211.00; 21 feet diameter 
(206 tons capacity), $298.00; and 25 feet diameter (300 tons 
capacity), $358.00. 

Complete specifications and building jilans for a 300-ton silo, 
of the kind described in the preceding pages, are given in Prof. 
Woll's Book on Silage. The dimensions of this silo are: Diameter, 
26 feet; height, 30 feet. 

According to our present knowledge this form of silo is inost 
likely the best that can be built; it is a somewhat complicated 
structure, calls for more time and skill for its construction, and 
costs more than other kinds of wooden circular silos, especially 
more than the stave silo soon to be described; but once built 
needs but little attention and it is durable and economical; being 
practically air-tight, the losses of food materials in the siloed 
fodder are reduced to a minimum. 

Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo. 

Several modifications of the Wisconsin Silo have been proposed 
and have given good satisfaction; one is described by Prof. 
Plumb in Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin No. 91, as follows: 

The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half way up there 
are three layers of sheeting against the studs with tarred paper 
between. The upper half of the studs has but two layers of 
sheeting. The sheeting was made by taking 2x6-inch white pine 
planks and sawing to -make four boards. The silo rests on a 
stone wall 18 inches deep and 16 inches wide. It is 30 feet high, 
18 feet 4 inches inside diameter, and holds about 150 tons. An 
inexpensive but durable roof was placed upon it. The cost of 
this structure is as follows: As the work was all done by the 



46 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

regular farm help at odd hours, the item of labor is giytn at 
estimated cost: Studding, $13.03; sheeting, $63.00; 5 rolls of 
paper, $6.25; nails, $2.40; cement for wall, $2.40; labor, $20.00; 
total, $107.08. The owner of the silo was so pleased with the 
service this one had rendered since its construction, that he built 
another like it during the summer of 1902. This silo is connected 
by a covered passage and chute with the feeding floor of the 
cattle barn. 

The construction of this type of silo calls for as much care 
in putting on sheeting, making doors and keeping out the air at 
these places and at the foundation, as is required with the more 
expensive forms previously described. The need for outer siding 
will depend in a large measure on circumstances. The farmer 
building the silo (living in Central Indiana) has had no trouble 
with his silage freezing. In Northern Indiana the siding would 
naturally be more necessary than in the southern part of this 
state, but generally speaking, siding is not necessary, although it 
does materially add to the attractiveness of the silo. 

Plastered Round Wooden Silos. 

Plastered round wooden silos have met with favor amongr 
farmers who have tried them, and are preferred by many for 
either the original or the modified Wisconsin silo, on account of 
their ease of construction and their durability. In the experience 
of H. B. Gurler, a well known Illinois dairyman, who has built 
several silos on his farm in the course of the last dozen years, the 
walls of plastered silos keep perfectly and there is no waste 
from moldy silage along the wall; neither is there any difl^culty 
about cracking of the plaster, if this is put on properly and a 
good quality of cement is used. Gurler described the construc- 
tion of his plastered silo in Breeder's Gazette, accompanying his 
description with building plans of his silo. We have reproduced 
the latter changed and improved in some points of minor im- 
portance, and give below a brief description of the method of 
building silos of this type. (See Figs. 10 and 11.) 

The foundation may be made of stone, brick or cement, and 
Is carried to the proper distance above ground. Sills composed 
of pieces of 2x4, two feet long, beveled at the ends so as to be 
toe-nailed together to form a circle of the same diameter as the 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 



47 



interior diameter of the silo, are placed on the foundation bedded 
in asphalt or cemented mortar, and on this the studding is 
erected, using two by fours, placed 15 or 16 inches apart. Inside 
sheeting was secured by having 6-inch fencing re-sawed, making 
the material a little less than %-inch thick. On this was nailed 
laths made from the same material, the laths being made with 
beveled edges so that when nailed onto the sheeting horizontally, 
the same way as the sheeting is put on, there are dove-tailed 
joints between the laths to receive the cement, preventing its 
loosening until it is broken. The patent grooved lath might be 
used, but they cannot be sprung to a twenty-foot circle. Better 
than either kind of wooden laths, however, is wire netting or 
metal lath of one form or another, such as is now generally used 
in outside plastering of houses^ nailed on strips of lx2's which are 
placed 15 inches apart, and nailed onto the studding through the 
sheeting. Metal lath will not take up moisture from the silage 
juices, and thus expand and possibly cause the plaster to crack, 




CJevanon 



Fig. 10. — Elevation and section of plastered round wooden silo. 



48 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



as would be likely to occur in case of wooden laths. For outside 
sheeting- similar material to that used for inside sheeting may 
be used. If built inside of a barn or in a sheltered place, no out- 
side sheeting would be required, although it would add greatly to 
the looks of the silo. Not being certain that the inside sheeting, 
laths and cement offered sufficient resistance to the outward 
pressure in the silo, Mr. Gurler put on wooden hoops outside of 
the studding, of the same material as for the inside she ting, 
putting it on double thickness and breaking joints. The silo de- 
scribed, which would hold 250-300 tons, cost $300, without a roof. 
Mr. Gurler considers this silo the best that can be built, and 
estimates that it will last for at least fifty years, if given a wash 
of cement every three years and if any cracks that may start 
be filled before the silo is filled again. 

The Gurler silo uses much less lumber than the Wisconsin or 
King silo, one thickness of sheeting instead of four or five thick- 
nesses being sufficient. The Gurler must be cement lined, how- 



\'*a'^^^ 13.' oetttira. 
"J 




6^ *:»"<>•*-» 
/M*- J '• • "^ 

Fig. 11. — Foundation plan and section of plastered round wooden 
silo. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 



49 




50 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

ever, but it is cheaper as lo first cost and is the more durable. 
It was designed primarily for use inside some other building, 
whereas the Wisconsin silo is intended to stand outside. 

Brick Lined Silos. 

As an illustration of silos of this type we give below a de- 
scription of the silo built in connection with the Dairy Barn of 
the AVisconsin Experimental Station; the accompanying figures, 
12 and 13, will show the exterior appearance of the barn and 
silo, and a plan of the eastern half of the first floor of this barn. 

The silo is circular in form, 18 feet inside diameter and 33 
feet deep. It is a framed structure lined inside and outside with 
brick. On 2x6-inch uprights, two wrappings of %-inch stuff, 6 
inches wide, are put, breaking joints, with no paper between. 
Brick is laid tight against this lining, and on the brick surface is 
a heavy coating of Portland cement (1 part cement, 1 part sand). 
On the outside brick is laid up against the lining with a small 
open space between (about Vs inch). The silo is -filled from the 
third floor of the barn, the loads of corn being hauled directly 
onto this floor over the trestle shown to the right in Fig. 12, and 
there run through the feed cutter. When the silagi is taken out 
for feeding, it falls through a box chute to the main floor where it 
is received into a truck (Fig. 54) in which it is conveyed to the 
mangers of the animals. 

An illustration and description of the original round silo, with 
a capacity of 90 tons, built at the same Station in 1891, are given 
in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage, Avhere descriptions and illustra- 
tions of a number of other first-class round wooden silos will also 
be found, like those constructed at the Experiment Stations in 
New Jersey, Missouri, and South Dakota. 

Stave Silos. 

The stave silo is the simplest type of separate silo buildings, 
and partly for this reason, partly on account of its cheapness of 
construction, more silos of this kind have been built during the 
past few years than any other silo type. 

Since their first introduction Stave Silos have been favorably 
mentioned by most writers on agricultural topics, as well as by 
experiment station men. In the recent bulletin from Cornell Ex- 



BRICK LINED SILOS. 



51 




52 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 










G be 
. C 



THE STAVE SILO. 53 

periment Station, we find the stave silo spoken of as "the most 
practical and successful silo which can be constructed," and the 
Ottawa Experiment Station is on record for the following state- 
ment in regard to the stave silo: "From extensive observation 
and study of silos and silo construction, and from experience here 
with a number of different silos, it would appear that the stave 
silo is the form of cheap silos that for various reasons is most 
worthy of recommendation. It combines simplicity and cheapness 
of construction with the requisite conditions to preserve the 
silage in the very best condition for feeding." 

Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large railroad 
or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfactory silos should be 
built as well as a No. 1 water tank. The first stave silos were 
built in this country in the beginning of the nineties; they soon 
found some enthusiastic friends, while most people, including 
nearly all writers and lecturers on silo construction, were in- 
clined to be skeptical as to their practicability. It was objected 
that the staves would expand so as to burst the hoops when the 
silo was filled with green fodder; that they would shrink after 
having been left empty during the summer months, so that the 
silo would fall to pieces, or at least so that it could not again 
be made air-tight; and finally, that the silage would freeze in 
such silos, and its feeding value thereby be greatly lowered. In 
addition to this, it was claimed that a substantial stave silo 
would cost as much as a first class ordinary all-wood silo of the 
same capacity, which would not have the objectionable features of 
the former. 

In spite of these objections the stave silo has, however, grad- 
ually gained ground, until of late years it has quite generally 
been adopted in preference to other kinds of silos, particularly in 
the Eastern and Central states. This being a fact, it follows that 
the objections previously made to the stave silos cannot be valid, 
that the staves do not swell so as to burst the hoops, or shrink 
so as to cause the silo to fall to pieces, or become leaky. As re- 
gards the danger from freezing of the silage, the criticisms of the 
stave silo are in order, as silage in outdoor stave silos will be 
likely to freeze in cold weather, in any of the northern states or 
Canada; but, according to the testimony of farmers who have 
had experience with frozen silage, this is more an inconvenience 
than a loss. The freezing does not injure the feeding value of 



54 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

the silage, or its palatability. Wlaen the silage is thawed out it 
is as good as ever, and eaten by cattle with a relish. 

Why Stave Silos Have Become Numerous. 

The main reason why stave silos have been preferred by the 
majority of farmers during late years are that they can be put 
up easily, quickly and cheaply, and the expense for a small silo 
of this kind is comparatively small. Many a farmer has built a 
stave silo who could not afford to build a high-priced silo, and 
others have preferred to build two small silos for one large one, 
or a small one in addition to an old, larger one that they may 
already have. Manufacturing firms have, furthermore, made a 
specialty of stave silo construction, and pushed the sale of such 
silos through advertisements and neat circulars. Having made a 
special business of the building of stave silos, and having had 
several years' experience as to the requirements and precautions 
to be observed in building such silos, these firms furnish silos 
complete with all necessary fixtures, that are greatly superior to 
any which a farmer would be apt to build according to more or 
less incomplete directions. 

It follows that the stave silos sent out by manufacturing firms 
will generally be more expensive than such a farmer can build 
himself, because they are built better. It does not pay to build 
a poor silo, however, except to bridge over an emergency. Poor. 
cheap silos are a constant source of annoyance, expense and 
trouble, whether built square, rectangular or round. The cheap 
silos described in other places of this book have not been given 
for the purpose of encouraging the building of such silos, but 
rather to show that if a farmer cannot afford to build a perma- 
nent good silo, he is not necessarily barred from the advantages 
of having silage for his stock, since a temporary silo may be built 
at a small cash outlay. 

We can therefore consistently recommend that parties intend- 
ing to build stave silos patronize the manufacturers who have 
made silo construction a special business. These firms furnish 
all necessary silo fittings, with complete directions for putting 
up the silos, and, if desired, also skilled help to superintend their 
building. Perhaps a large majority of the farmers of the country 
cannot, however, patronize manufacturers of stave silos because 
the expense of shipping the lumber and fixtures would be pro- 



THE STAVE SILO. 55 

hibitory. For the convenience of such parties and others who 
may prefer to build their own stave silos, directions for their 
construction are given in the following: The specifications for a 
100-ton stave silo, printed below, which are taken from Woll's 
Book on Silage, were furnished by Claude & Starck, Architects. 
Madison, Wisconsin. 

Specifications for 100-ton Stave Silo. 

MASONRY. 

Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo to a depth 
of 6 inches; excavate for foundation wall to a depth of 16 inches; 
in this trench build a wall 18 inches wide and 20 inches high, of 
field stone laid in rich lime mortar. Level off top and plaster in- 
side, outside and on top with cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 
part sand. Fill inside area with four inches of good gravel, thor- 
oughly tamped down; after the wood work is in place coat this 
with one inch of cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 part clean 
sand. Cement shall be smoothly finished, dished well to the' 
center and brought up at least 2 inches? all around inside and 
outside walls. 

CARPENTRY. 

All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces, breaking joints, 
and made from clear, straight -grained cypress, 2x6 inches, bev- 
eled on edges to an outside radius of 8 feet, mill-sized to the 
exact dimensions and dressed on all sides. There shall be three 
doors in the fifth, eighth and tenth spaces between the hoops, 
made by cutting out from staves 28 inches long cut to a 45-degree 
bevel sloping to the inside. (See Fig. 15.) The staves shall then 
be fastened together with two 2x4 inch battens cut on inside to 
an 8-ft. radius and bolted to each stave with two %-inch diameter 
carriage bolts with round head sunk on inside and nut on outside. 
The staves between the doors shall be fastened together top and 
bottom, with %-inch diameter hardwood dowel pins, and abutting 
ends of staves shall be sqjaared and toe-nailed together. 

Bottom Plates. — Bottom plates shall be made of 2x4-inch 
pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 10 inches radius 
outside. They shall be bedded in cement mortar and the staves 
shall then be set on the foundation and well spiked to these 
plates. ■■'■' ■■ 



56 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



Hoops. — Hoops shall be made from two pieces of %-inch diam- 
eter rovmd iron with upset ends, threaded 8 inches, with nut and 
washer at each end; as a support for the hoops a piece of 4x6 
shall be substituted for a stave on opposite sides and holes bored 
in it and the ends of hoops passed through these holes and tight- 
ened against the sides of the 4x6-inch. The hoops shall be twelve 
in number starting at the bottom 6 inches apart and increasing 
in distance 6 inches between each hoop until a space of 3 feet 
6 inches is reached; from this point up this distance shall be 
preserved as near as possible to the top. 




Fig. 15. — Appearance of door in stave silo after being sawed out 
and side view in place. The opening is largest on the inside 
of silo. (Clinton.) 



THE STAVE SILO. 



57 



Roof. — Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6-inch clear 
siding lapping joints, nailed to 2x4-inch rafters, 2-feet centers 
1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2x4-inch plates. These plates to be 
supported on two 4x4 -inch pieces resting on top of hoops. Three 




Fig. 16. — A cheap roof of a stav'e silo. (Clinton.) 

Ix4-inch collar beams shall be spiked to end and middle rafters 
to tie side of roof together. (See Fig. 12.) Fig. 16 shows an- 
other simple construction of roof on a stave silo. 



PAINTING. 

The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall be painted 
two coats of good mineral paint: the entire inside surface of the 
staves and doors shall be thoroughly coated with hot coal tar. 

Note. — Before filling silo, tar paper should be tacked tightly 
over doors and the entire inside of silo examined and cracks 
tightly caulked. 

The method of construction specified in the preceding may of 
course be modified in many particulars, according to the condi- 
tions present in each case, cost of different kinds of lumber, max- 
imum amount of money to be expended on silo, etc. 

The following directions for the construction of stave silos 



58 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



are taken from two bulletins on this subject, published by the 
Cornell and Ottawa Experiment Stations. For a silo 20 feet in 
diameter, a circular trench 18 inches to two feet wide and with 
an outer diameter of 22 feet is dug about 2 feet deep, or below 
the frost line. The surface soil over the whole included area, 
and for 2 feet outside, is removed to a depth of 10 or 12 inches 
at the same time. The trench is then filled to the level of the 
interior with stone, well pounded down, the surface stone being 
broken quite small, and thin cement (1 part of cement to 4 of 
sand thoroughly mixed) poured over, well worked in and left 
for a few days. This is followed by a coat of good cement (1 
part cement to 3 sand), care being taken when finished to have 
the surface level and smooth. 

The silo is set up as shown in Fig. 17, which shows a cross- 
section of one method of construction. 

^^ 




-y-y-» 






.-J. 



Fig. 17.— Cross section of stave silo. The dotted lines show how 
scaffolding may be put up. 



MATERIAL FOR THE SILO. 59 

The posts (a, a, a, a) should be of 6x6 material and run the 
entire length of the silo. These should be first set up vertically 
and stayed securely in place. 

The scaffolding may be constructed by setting up 2x4 scantling 
in the positions shown in Fig. 17, as b, b, b, b. Boards nailed 
from these 2x4 scantling and to the 6x6 posts will form a rigid 
framework, across which the planks for the scaffold platform may 
be laid. Before the scaffolding is all in place the staves should be 
stood up within the inclosure; otherwise difficulty will be ex- 
perienced in getting them into position. 

It is probable that no better material can be obtained for the 
staves than Southern cypress. This, however, is so expensive in 
the North, as to preclude its use in most cases. Of the cheaper 
materials hemlock, white pine, and yellow pine, are usually the 
most available. At the present time hemlock is one of the cheap- 
est satisfactory materials which can be purchased, and it is 
probably as good as any of the cheaper materials. It should be 
sound and free from loose knots. 

If the silo is to have a diameter of 12 feet or less, the staves 
should be made of either 2x4 material, unbeveled on the edges 
and neither tongued nor grooved, or of 2x6 material beveled 
slightly on the edges to make the staves conform to the circular 
shape of the silo. If the silo is to have a diameter of more than 
12 feet, the staves should be of 2x6 material, and neither beveled 
nor tongued and grooved on the edges. The staves should be 
surfaced on the inside so that a smooth face may be presented 
which will facilitate the settling of the silage. The first stave set 
up should be made plumb, and should be toe-nailed at the top 
to one of the posts originally set. Immediately a stave is set in 
place it should be toe-nailed at the top to the preceding stave set. 
It has been found that the work of setting up and preserving the 
circular outline may be materially aided by the use of old barrel 
staves (see Fig. 18). For a silo 12 feet in diameter the curve in 
the stave of the sugar barrel is best adapted; for a 16-foot silo 
the flour barrel stave is best, and for a silo 20 feet or more in 
diameter the stave of the cement barrel is best. If when the silo 
staves are put in place they are toe-nailed securely to the ones 
previously set if they are fastened firmly to the permanent up- 
right post (Fig. 17, a, a, a, a) ; if the barrel staves are used as 
directed above, the silo will have sufficient rigidity to stand until 



60 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



the hoops are put in place. However, if it become.s necessary for 
any reason to delay for any considerable time the putting on of 
the hoops, boards should bo nailed across the top of the silo. 

When it is found impossible to secure staves of the full length 
desired, a joint or splice must be made. 

For a silo 30 feet deep, staves 20 feet in length may be used. 
A part of these should be used their full length and part should 
be sawed through the middle, thus making staves of 20 and 10 
feet length. In setting them up the ends which meet at the splice 
should be squared and toe-nailed securely together. They should 
alternate so that first a long stave is at the bottom then a short 
one. thus breaking joints at 10 feet and 20 faet from the base. 

B^or the hoops, %-inch round iron or steel rods are recom- 
mended, although cheaper substitutes have been found satisfac- 
tory. Each hoop should be in three sections for a silo 12 feet in 
diameter, in four sections for a silo 16 feet in diameter. If the 
method of construction shown in Fig. 17 is followed, the hoops 




Fig. 18.— Shows how barrel staves may be used in setting up a 
silo. They should be removed before the silo is filled. 



IRON HOOPS FOR SILOS. 61 

will need to be in four sections each, the ends being passed 
through the upright 6x6 posts, and secured by heavy washers and 
nuts. The bottom hoop should be about six inches from the base 
of the silo; the second hoop should be not more than two feet 
from the first; the third hoop two and one-half feet from the 
second, the distance between hoops being increased by one-half 
foot until they are three and one-half feet apart, which distance 
should be maintained except for the hoops at the top of the silo 
which may be four feet apart. The hoops should be drawn fairly 
tight before the silo is filled, but not perfectly tight. They must 
be tight enough to close up the space between the staves, thus 
preventing any foreign matter from getting into the cracks which 
would prevent the staves from closing up as they swell, and allow 
air to enter. To hold hoops and staves in place during the sum- 
mer when the silo is empty, staples should be driven over the 
hoops into the staves. If a sufficient number of staples are used 
they will prevent the sagging or dropping down of the hoops, and 
they will hold the staves securely in place. 

The hoops should be watched very closely for a few days 
after the silo is filled. If the strain becomes quite intense the 
nuts should be slightly loosened. If during the summer when 
the silo is empty and the staves thoroughly dry the hoops are 
tightened so that the staves are drawn closely together when 
the silo is filled and the wood absorbs moisture and begins to 
swell, the hoops must be eased somewhat to allow for the ex- 
pansion. 

The doors, 2 feet wide by 2i/^ feet high, should be located 
where convenience in feeding dictates. The lower door should 
be between the second and third hoops at the bottom, and 
other doors will usually be needed in every second space be- 
tween there and the top, except that no door will be needed 
in the top space, as the silage when settled will be sufficiently 
low to enable it to be taken out at the door in the space below. 
Plans should be made for the doors at the time the staves are set. 
When the place is reached wh.i-e it is desired to have the doors, 
a saw should be started in the edge of the stave at the points 
where the top and bottom of the doors are to come. The sav\- 
should be inserted so that the door can be sawed out on a 
bevel, making the ope*iing larger on the inside of the silo. (See 
Fig. 15.) This will enable the door to be removed and put in 



62 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

place only from the inside, and when set In place and pressed 
down with silage the harder the pressure the tighter will the 
door fit. After the silo is set up and the hoops have been put 
on and tightened the cutting out of the doors may be completed. 
Before doing this, cleats 2 inches by 3 inches and in length equal 
to the width of the door, should be made which will conform 
to the circular shape of the silo. One of these cleats should 
be securely bolted to the top and one to the bottom of where 
the door is to be cut. (See Fig. 15.) After the bolting, the 
door may be sawed out, and it is then ready for use. Wlien 
set in place at time of filling the silo a piece of tarred paper 
inserted at the top and bottom will fill the opening made by the 
saw and prevent the entrance of any air around the door. 

Another Door for Stave Silo. 

Silage being heavy to handle and pitch up, has made contin- 
uous doors a popular feature of a few factory-built silos, as it 
is much easier to get the silage out of the silo for feeding. The 
illustration, Fig. 19, shows a method of making a door in home- 
made silos which is continuous with the exception of a narrow 
brace piece extending across the opening, under each hoop, 
to give rigidity to the structure. These pieces should be 
securely toe-nailed at each end to the staves. The jamb piec s, 
e, e, should be 2 inches thick, beveled off on the side away 
from the door, securely spiked to the inside of the stave, as 
shown, so as to leave a rabbet 2x2 inches. Great care should 
be taken to have these pieces exactly the same distance apart 
throughout their entire length, so that the door boards, being 
sawed the exact length, will fit alike and properly all the way 
up, and if care be taken in this regard it will not be necessary 
to replace them in the same order at each successive filling of 
the silo. The door boards should be matched, two inches thick 
the same as the staves, and if surfaced and well seasoned there 
need be no fear of the silage spoiling around such a door. A 
strip of acid and water-proof paper may be placed in the rabbet, 
between the ends of the door boards and the stave, as an extra 
precaution, but if the carpenter work is well done it is not 
absolutely necessary. 

Such a door can be adapted to any form of stave silo, and, if 
not more than two feet wide, the fact that the door section 
is straight instead of curved will make no difference. 



SECTION OF SILO DOOR. 



63 




Si\.\\ot( ^ SvVo ^^QK 




Fig. 19.— a, a, Staves, b, b, Door Boards, c, Brace 2»4 by 6, set 
In. d, d. Hoops, e, e, Jamb Pieces. 



6-t 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



If the silo is built outside of tlie barn some sort of a roof 
is desirable. This should be sufFiciLntly wide to protect the 
walls of the silo as thoroughly as possible. A very satisfactory 
roof is shown in Pig. 16. Two other constructions of a cheap 
roof for a. stave silo are shown in Figs. 20 and 21. The latter 
was built at the Indiana Experiment Station at a total cost 
of $10.50, viz., lumber, $4.00; tin put on and painted, $6.00, and 
hardware, 50 cents. Two 2x6 piecs (AA) were placed on edge 
and toe-nailed to the top of the staves they rested on; the 
projection is for supporting the carrier at filling time. Tliey 
are tied togeth; r by the .short pieces E. The roof is in three 
sections, G, H, and I. G and H are hinged to the frame A, A, 
and may be tipped up when the silo is nearly full, to allow filling 
'to the top. The narrow middle section is light enough to lift 
off on either side, and leaves the opening for the carrier to 
deliver into. 




//■mil,, ' '■^^^, 



Fig. 20. — A cheap roof for stave silos. 



CHEAP ROOF FOR STAVE SILO. 65 

On the framework B, B, and C, C, cheap sheeting boards 
are nailed. This is then covered with tin, soldered joints and 
painted. The sections should be fastened down by means of 
staples and hooks, or other device; the hooks are used on this 
one. On the inner edge of G and H, 2x2-inch strips, K, are nailed. 
Close to these are placed similar strips, J, to which the cross- 
boards are nailed, forming the section I of the roof. The tin 



..-i^ 


^ 


1 Li \ 


F 


, \\, 1 I ' 
•\ I ' ' 




* 1^ 1 ' 


r 




Fig. 21.— A CHEAP ROOF OF STAVE SILO. 

A. B. and E, 2x6 in.; C, 2x4 in.; D, E. Enlarged Outside End; F, 
Hinges; G, H, I, Sections of Roof; J, K, 2x2 in. (Van Norman.) 



on the section I should come over to the side of J. On the 
other sections it should run up on the side of K, making a 
water-tight joint. 

The sections G and H have slope of nearly 3 inches, being 
the difference in height of A and C. C is notched one inch at 
the outer end. (Van Norman.) 



66 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

A Modification of the Stave Silo, 

stave silos are admittedly cheap and readily put up, but 
unless hoops are tightened as they dry out, they may be easily' 
blown into a shapeless mass in case of a heavy gale. The 
modification of the stave silo described in the following has the 
advantage of being more rigid and substantial; it has been put 
up in a number of places in the East, and has apparently given 
good satisfaction for several years at least. In building this 
silo some good tough oak plank two inches thick and of any 
convenient length are procured. Rock elm will do, although 
not as good as oak. The planks are sawed into strips half an 
inch thick. The foundation of the silo is made of concrete, and 
a little larger than the outside diameter of the silo. A stake 
is set in the center and on this a piece is nailed, just long enough 
to act as a guide in setting scantling when erecting sides. For 
sides li^x4-inch hemlock of any desired length is used. These 
are set up on the circumference of the silo, perpendicular to the 
bottom, 3 feet and 7 feet up nail on the outside one of the half- 
inch strips mentioned before, being sure to keep the circle 
regular. This will keep upright pieces in place until the circle 
is completed. On each hoop so started other half-inch pieces 
are nailed, lapping them in different places until each hoop is 
three inches thick. Other hoops are now put on in the same 
manner, placing them one foot apart at bottom up to the 
three-foot hoop, 16 inches apart from three to the 7-foot 
hoop, then increasing the distance between each hoop two inches, 
until they are 30 inches apart, at which distance they should 
be kept. If staves are to be spliced it should be done on the 
hoop. When this is done, a silo will be made of Ii4x4-inch. 
thoroughly hooped with wooden hoops 2x5 inches. 

The inside may be covered with the best quality of felt. 
Well tacked to the staves, on which a thick coat of thick coal 
tar is spread; over this another thickness of felt is put while the 
tar coating is still green. The silo is lined with %-inch Georgia 
pine ceiling, nailing thoroughly and the lining coated with two 
coats of coal tar, putting on the first one quite thin, but using 
all the wood will take in. and for a second coat tar as thick 
as can be spread. Give plenty of time to dry before filling. 

The outside of the silo may be boarded up with vertical 



MODIFICATION OF STAVE SILO. 



67 



boarding, or it may have strips nailed on hoops and be boarded 
with novelty siding. The latter method will make a stronger 
and better looking silo. If the hoops are well nailed to the 
staves when being made, we shall have a silo in which it is 
impossible for the staves to shrink or get loose. (Woodward.) 

Protection against freezing. — If the silo is built out-doors in 
any of the Northern states, it is necessary to provide some 
special means to keep the silage from freezing in case this is 
considered a very objectionable feature. The silo may be in- 
closed by a wide jacket of rough boards nailed to four uprights, 
leaving the section of the silo where the doors are easy of 
access; the space between the silo and outside jacket is tilled 
with straw in the fall; this may be taken out and us d for 
bedding in the spring, thus allowing the staves to be thoroughly 
dried out during the summer, and preventing the silo from 
rotting. 

Number of staves required for stave silos. — The following 
table (Table VI) will be found useful in calculating the number 
of staves required for silos of different diameters, and feeding 
areas which these will give: 



Table VI. — Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Diameter, 


circumfer- 
ence. 


Area, 
Square 


Diameter, 


circumfer- 
ence. 


Area. 
Square 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


■ 8 


25.1 


50.3 


21 


66.0 


346.4 


9 


28.3 


63.6 


22 


i 69.1 


380.1 


10 


31.4 


78.5 


23 


72.3 


415.5 


11 


34.6 


95.0 


24 


75.4 


452.4 


12 


37.7 


113.1 


25 


78.5 


490.9 


13 


40.8 


132.7 


26 


81.7 


530.9 


14 


44.0 


153.9 


27 


84.8 


572.6 


15 


47.1 


179.7 


28 


88.0 


615.8 


16 


50.3 


201.1 


29 


91.1 


660.5 


17 


53.4 


227.0 


30 


94.2 


706.9 


18 


56.5 


254.5 


31 


97.4 


754.8 


19 


59.7 


283.5 


52 


100.5 


804.2 


20 


62.8 


314.2 









To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter 
by 3.1416. 



68 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the 
diameter by 0.7854. 

To find the cubical contents of a cylinder, multiply the area 
of the base (floor) by the height. 

Example. — A silo 16 feet in diameter and 26 feet high is 
wanted; how many staves 2x6 inches will be needed, and what 
will be the feeding area in the silo and its capacity 

The circumference of a circle 16 feet in diameter is 50.3 feet; 
there will therefore be required 50.3-=-i/i=101 staves, 2x6 inches, 
26 feet high, or if staves of this height cannot be obtained, 135 
staves 20 feet long, or 50 each of 12 and 14 feet long- staves. 
The feeding area will be 16X16X0.7854 = 201.1 square feet, and 
the cubical content of the silo, 201.1X26=5228.6 cubic feet. Es- 
timating the weight of a cubic foot of corn silage at 40 pounds, 
5228.6 cubic feet of silage would weigh 209,164 pounds, or about 




Fig. 23. — Showing method of bedding iron rods in stone, brick, or 
concrete walls, to increase the strength. The ends of rods 
•should be firmly linked together as shown. 



OTHER FORMS OF ROUND Sli^OS. (;9 

100 tons, which is the approximate capacity of a round silo of 
the dimensions given. 

Connecting Round Silos with Barn. — The location of the silo 
with reference to other farm buildings has already been dis- 
cussed. The silo must be easy to get at from the stable, and 
the silage, if possible, handled only once in being placed before 
the stock. A round silo is most conveniently built just outside 
of the barn and connected with this by means of covered pas- 
sageway. The method of joining silos to barns is illustrated in 
numerous pictures of silos given in this book. 

Details concerning the construction of stone, brick, and ce- 
ment silos are given in Prof. WoU's "Book on Silage," and in 
Bulletin No. 83 of Wisconsin Experiment Station by Prof. 
King, as well as in numerous other pamphlets, and we shall 
not take up furtlier space here with the discussion thereof. The 
same holds true with all other forms of silo construction than 
those already explained. We wish to briefly mention, however, 
the octagonal type of silo. 

Octagonal Silos. 

A number of octagonal silos have been built in recent y ars, 
and And favor with their owners in most instances. If properly 
put up and care taken to fasten the girts securely at the corners 
with plenty of spikes, the octagonal silo is greatly superior to 
the square type, and has nearly every advantage of the round 
silo, and can readily be constructed by anyone handy with 
tools with the assistance of the ordinary farm help. 

The foundation should be of stone or brick as described for 
various other forms of silos, and should be laid out with proper 
dimensions for the size decided upon. Brief details are here 
given for an octagonal silo of about the same capacity as a 
round silo, 20 feet in diamtter and of equal height. 

If the foundation is laid out so that the corners are in the 
circumference of a circle 21 feet in diameter the horizontal girts 
will be about 8 feet long, and will be much stronger and better 
able to withstand the lateral pressure than the sides of a 
square silo of equal capacity. Details of construction are shown 
in the di-awings, Figs. 25 and 26. The girts should be 5x8 
inches and spiked at the corners with 6-inch spikes, up to 



70 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



nearly one-half of the height of the silo, and 2x8 in. the rest of 
the way, fastened with 20 penny spikes. The girts should be 16 
inches apart at the bottom for one-third of the height of the 
silo. They may be 18 inches apart the second third of the dis- 
tance, and above that the distance between them can be in- 
creased till they are 2 feet or more at the very top. A double 
row may be used for a plate. Sound timber only should be used. 
Care should be taken to have the girts securely spiked at the 
corners, so that the joints will not give. The horizontal girt 
sections take the place of hoops in the round silo and must be 
strong. Not less than six or eight spikes should be used at each 
splice. One of the causes of failure in home-made silos of 
every kind is that the ordinary carpenter, who has probably never 
built a silo before, has but a limited idea of the pressure on the 
sides of a silo 30 or more feet deep, and does not realize the 
disappointment and loss occasioned by a poorly built silo. 

A simple method of getting the walls perpendicular is to 
first lay the sill, which should be fastened to the wall securely. 




Fig. 25. — Perspective, showing construction of frame, and double 
lining with paper between. The door is made of two thick- 
nesses with paper between, as shown. 



OCTAGONAL, SILO. 71 

by means of bolts set in the wall, and then erect at each corner 
and on the inside a temporarj' post or scantling to serve as a 
guide, braced in position so that it is perpendicular both ways, 
and the girts then laid and spiked in position, one above the 
other. 

The lining is, of course, put on up and down and should be 
matched and of good thickness, say 1% or I14 if but one layer 
is used. If two layers, it need not be so thick, %-inch flooring, 
and the outer layer not necessarily matched. The corners should 
be fitted as nicely as possible, and it is a good plan to block out 
the corners, as shown at Fig. 26, a, a, a, so that the tongues and 
grooves can be properly adjusted to each other. 

John Gould, a prominent dairy writer and lecturer, recom- 
mends, where one thickness of matched lumber is used in the 
above manner, that the lining be thoroughly coated on the out- 
side with heavy application of coal tar, or other similar sub- 
stance, so as to prevent the air penetrating the pores of the 
lumber, and causing the silage to dry onto the inner surface. 

Any style of door can be used, but an effective continuous 
door is shown in the illustration. If any of the girts be cut 




Fig. 26. — Showing method of laying sill and bolting same to foun- 
dation for an octagonal silo. 



72 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

out lo make the door space larger, the remaining ones should 
be correspondingly reinforced. 

The making of a roof for such a silo is a simple matter, and 
a dormer window will assist in filling, although a trap door may 
be used in case the filling be done with a bloAver. Any style 
of siding may be used. 

Such a silo if well built will be durable, satisfactory, have 
nearly all the advantages of a round silo, and in addition will 
be a much more stable structure, requiring no tightening of 
the hoops from time to time. 

Bills of material for a silo built to 21-foot circle and 50 feet 
high are given below. The cost will, of course, vary with the 
locality. 

Bills of materials for Octagonal Silo 20x50 feet outside meas- 
urement: 

Foundation 10 perches 

Girts 110 feet 5x8 1 8 or 16 foot 

900 feet 2x8 J lengths. 

Rafters 250 feet 2x4x14 feet 

Siding 2500 feet 

Lining 2800 feet 1 14 inch thick, matched 

Dormer Window 

Nails and spikes . . .- 300 lbs. 

Shingles 4 ^ 

P'^i"t 6 gallons 

The "Ballard" silo is a lumber silo of the octagonal type, de- 
signed to be built of material that can be found in any retail 
lumber yard. It is one of the contributions of the Plan Book 
Department of the Western Retail Lumbermen's Association, of 
Spokane, Washington, for the benefit of the customers of its 
members; and its success has brought about its Introduction 
into a very extended territory. 

Its features are its low cost, both in material and labor; 
its strength and rigidity: and the simple method of adapting 
its construction to meet the varying climatic conditions of widely 
separated localities. No skilled labor is required, no patented 
materials are used, and the shape and details of construction 



COST OP DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 



73 




SHIP LflP-> 
OUTSIDE 

INSIDE 



^/QMQ" 

ANCHOR BOLTS 

BEDDED IM 
CONCRETE WALL 
TO SECURE 

FRfiME 



Fig. 5. — Showing foundation plan, also method of placing sill, etc. 



are especially adapted for the "battery" system in which several 
small silos are built in succession as the demand for silag,? in- 
creases. There is a desirable saving of cost and an increase 
in solidity and rigidity in the "battery" system that is of in- 
terest. It is the "sectional book case" idea applied to the farm. 

The illustrations shown by Figures 5, 22, 24 and 32 were pre- 
pared from blue prints furnished by the above commpany and 
apply to the 10x50 foot size holding 45 tons. 

The anchor bolts shovv'n in Fig. 5 are for attaching 4xS 
bracing. Similar bolts are placed in the concrete wall to which 
sill is firmly bolted. In Fig. 22, ribs No. 1 to G are spaced 12 
inches apart. Ribs No. 6 to 12 are 18 inches apart; No. 12 to 



74 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



r 



iH 



jtdL 



r^ 



^ -8 

7 

-^ 6 

,.- z 



Fig. 22. — Skeleton showing method of framing. 



^"^ 




Fjg. 24. — Showing plan 
of joints. 



16, 24 inches apart, and No. 16 to 
19, 32 inches apart. Fig. 24 shows the 
method of jointing and spiking the 
ends of chords, also the 2x8-inch up- 
right support between the ribs. The 
shiplap outside and the lx4-inch floor- 
ing inside are also shown. 

The regular chord in ribs No. 2 
to No. 18 and part of rib No. 19 is 
shown in the larger drawing, Fig. 32. 
The smaller drawing represents the 
chord for ribs No. 1 and No. 19. The 
%-inch bolt holes shown are for bolt- 
ing sill or rib No. 1 to the foundation. 



Another type of octagonal silo that has found favor in some 
sections of the corn belt because of the fact that the material 



COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 



75 




Fig. 32. — Pattern 
for chords or 
ribs. The small 
size is used only 
for sill and plate 
ribs. 



is easily obtainable from any lumber yard, is 
built by simply placing one 2x4 on top of an- 
other interlocking the corners and nailing 
together. The 2x4's are sawed at the proper 
angle to fit silos from 10 to 20 feet in diam- 
eter. The lining consists merely in placing 
prepared roofing on the inside to make it 
air-tight. It is said that this silo may be 
built with but 15 to 20 tons capacity and at 
any later time may be increased in capacity 
by building it higher. 



Cost of Different Kinds of Silos. 



The cost of a silo will depend on local 
conditions as to price of labor and mater- 
ials; how much labor has to be paid for; the 
size of the silo, etc. The comparative data for the cost of two 
round silos, 13 and 25 feet in diameter, and 30 feet deep, is given 
by Prof. King, as shown in the following table: 



Table VII. 





13 Feet Inside Diameter 


25 Keet Inside Diameter 


Kinds of Silo 


Without 


with 


Without 


With 




Root 


Roof 


Roof 


Roof 


Stone Silo 


$151 


$175 


$264 


$328 


Brick Silo 


245 


275 


437 


. 494 


Brick-lined Silo, 4 inches 




thick 


142 


230 


310 


442 


Brick-lined. 2 inches thick. 


131 


190 


239 


369 


Lathed and plastered Silo 


133 


185 


244 


363 


Wood Silo with galvanized 










iron 


168 


185 


308 


432 


Wood Silo with paper 


128 


222 


235 


358 


Stave Silo 


127 
101 


185 
144 


136 
195 


289 


Cheape.st wood Silo 


240 



7G HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

During the spring of 1895 Prof. Woll made inquiries in regard 
to the cost of siilos of different kinds (not only circular ones) 
built by farmers in different states in the Union. The i-esults 
of this inquiry are summarized briefly below. 

The cheapest silos were those built in bays of barns, as would 
be expected, since roof and outside lining are here already at 
hand. Number of slips included, fourteen; average capacity, 
140 tons; average cost of silos, $92, or 65 cents per ton capacity. 

Next comes the square or rectangular wooden silos. Number 
of silos included, twenty-five; average capacity, 194 tons; av- 
erage cost of silos, $285, or $1.46 per ton capacity. 

The round silos follow closely the square wooden ones in 
point of cost. Only s-ven silos were included, all but one of 
which were made of wood. Average capacity, 237 tons; average 
cost, $368, or $1.54 per ton capacity. The data for the six round 
wooden silos are as follows: Average capacity, 228 tons; aver- 
age cost, $340, or $1.52 per ton capacity. The one round cement 
silo cost $500, and had a capacity of 300 tons (dimensions: diam- 
eter, 50 feet; depth, 21 feet); cost, per ton capacity, $1.67. 

The stone or cement silos are the most expensive in first cost, 
as is shown by the data obtained. Number of silos included, 
nine; average capacity, 28S tons; average cost, $577, or $1.93 
per ton capacity. 

The great differeuce in the cost of different silos of the same 
kind is apparent without much reflection. The range in cost per 
ton capacity in the 25 square wooden silos included in the pre- 
ceding summary was from 70 cents to $5.60. The former figures 
were obtained with a 144-ton silo, 20x18x20 feet; and the latter 
with a 140-ton silo, built as follows: Dimensions, 14x28x18 feet; 
2x12x18 feet studdings, set 12 inches apart; two thicknesses of 
dimension boards inside, with paper between, sheeting outside 
with paper nailed on studding; cement floor. Particulars are 
lacking as regards the construction of the first silo beyond its 
dimensions. 

It may be in order to state, in comparing the average data 
for th:> cost of the different silo types, that the round silos were 
uniformly built better than the rectangular wooden silos included, 
and according to modern requirements, while many of the latter 
were old and of comparatively cheap construction, so that the 



COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 77 

figures cannot be taken to represent the relative value of rec- 
tangular and round silos built equally well. 

A good many figures entering into the preceding summaries 
are doubtless somewhat too low, if all labor put on the silo is 
to be paid for, for in some cases the cost of work done by the 
farmers themselves was not figured in with other expenses. As 
most farmers would do some of the work themselves, the figures 
given may, however, be taken to represent the cash outlay in 
building silos. In a general, way, it may be said that a silo can 
be built in the bay of a barn for less than 75 cents per ton 
capacity; a round or a good square or rectangular wooden silo 
for about $1.50, and a stone or cement silo for about $2 per 
ton capacity, all figures being subject to variations according to 
local prices for labor and materials. 

Rennie, a Canadian writer, gives the following comparative 
figures as to cost of silos: Round stave silos, 75 cents per ton 
capacity; round wooden silos, $1.25, and cement silos, $1.25 to 
$1.50 per ton capacity. 

The cost of stave silos will of course vary with the kind of 
lumber used, cost of labor, and other expenses, as in case of other 
types of silos. It is evident that stave silos can as a rule be 
built cheaper than other kinds of silos, both from the fact that 
less material is used in their construction, and because the labor 
bill is smaller. One of the first stave silos described, built in 
Ontario, Canada, cost $75.00; capacity, 140 tons. Other and 
better built stave silos have been put up for $100 for a 100-ton 
silo, and this inay be considered an average price for such a 
silo, made of white pine, hemlock or anj' lumber that is cheapest 
in the particular locality where the silo is to be built. If built 
of Southern cypress, and complete with conical roof and doors, 
the price of stave silos will in the North come to about $1.50 per 
ton capacity, small silos being a little dearer, and larger ones a 
little cheaper than this average figure. 

Estimating Material and Cost of Silos. 

Several writers on silo construction have published bills of ma- 
terials used in the construction of silos of moderate sizes of 
the following three types: Wisconsin Improved Silo, Modified 
Wisconsin Silo, and Stave Silo. Farmers contemplating building 



78 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

a silo, can use these estimates for figurin;? out the approximate 
cost of silos of the three kinds under his conditions as to cost 
of materials and labor. The estimates are made for silos built 
in the open, on level land. On hillsides deeper walls may be 
made to advantage, and where the silo is located within a build- 
ing no roof will he needed. Consequently various factors may 
alter the applications of these estimates, which are only offered 
as suggestive with the hope they may prove helpful. The first 
three estimates of materials are published by Prof. Plumb, while 
the others have ^een furnished by Professors King and Withy- 
combe. 

Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin Improved Silos. 

Size, 30 feet deep, 14 feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons. 

Brick — 3575 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 3 feet deep. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long. 

Flooring for doors — 32 feet, 4 matched. 

Sheeting — 3000 feet, 1/2 inch, resawed from 2x6 — 16 foot plank 
sawed three times, dressed one side to uniform thickness for 
inside lining of two layers. 

Lining — 1500 feet of same for outside. 

Tar building paper — 200 yards, water and acid-proof. 

Nails— 200 lbs. 8-penny; 200 lbs, 10-penny. 

Spikes— 20 lbs. 

Rafters — 22, 2x4, 10 feet long, for usual ridge roof. 

Sheeting for roof — 350 feet of 16 foot boards. 

Shingles— 3000. 

Shingle nails — 12 lbs. 

Dormer window for filling through. 

Paint— 7 gallons, providing two coats. 

Cement — 2 barrels, for cementing bottom. 

Estimate of Materials for a Modified Wisconsin Silo. 

Same' capacity as preceding. 

Brick — 550 for foundation. 8 in. wide. 5 in. thick. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long. 

Sheeting — 3000 ft. 1/2 in. resawed from 2x6, 16 ft. plank sawed 
three times, dressed to uniform thickne.'js for inside lining of 
two layers. 

Tar building paper — 200 yards water and acid-proof. 

Nails — 150 lbs. 8-penny. 

Spikes— 12 lbs. 

No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or provided for in 
this construction. 



ESTIMATES OF MATERIALS. 79 

Estimate of Materials for a Stave Silo. 

Size 12x28 ft., capacity 60 tons. 

Bricks — 1800 for foundation, 1 foot tliick, 2 ft. deep 
Staves— 77 2x6, 16 ft. dressed 4 sides. 
Staves— 77 2x6, 12 ft. dressed 4 sides. 

Rods— 10, l^Vz ft. long Vz in. iron, with % threaded ends and 
nuts. 

Staples — 2 gross, i/^x2 in. 

Iron tighteners — 20 holding ends of hoops. 

Rafters — 2 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof center. 

Rafters — 2 2x6 pieces, 15 ft. long, for roof next center. 

Side rafters — 48 ft. 2x4 pieces. 

Roof sheeting — 170 ft. common. 

Tin sheeting— 196 ft. 

Cement for floor — 2 bbls. 

Estimate of Materials for a Wisconsin Improved Silo. 

Size 30 ft. deep, 20 ft. inside diameter, capacity 200 tons. 

Stone foundation — 7.5 perch. 

Studs— 2x4, 14 and 16 ft., 1491 ft. 

Rafters— 2x4. 12 ft., 208 ft. 

Roof boards — Fencing, 500 feet. 

Shingles — 6 M. 

Siding— Rabbeted, 2660 ft. 

Lining — Fencing, ripped, 2800 ft. 

Tarred paper — 740 lbs. 

Coal tar— 1 bbl. 

Hardware— $6.00. 

Painting (60 cents per square) — $15.20. 

Cementing bottom- — $5.00. 

Carpenter labor (at $5 per M and board) — $35.17. 

The estimated cost of the last silo is $246.39; it is an out- 
side, wholly independent structure, except connected with the 
barn in the manner shown in Fig. 20, with entrance and feeding 
chute toward the barn. 

Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo. 

12 ft. in diameter, 24 ft. deep, capacity 49 tons. 

1 2-3 yards of rock gravel. 

4 barrels of sand. 

1 barrel of cement. 

2260 ft. tongued and grooved staves. 

72 ft. 3x6, 24 ft. door frames. 

558 ft. % in. round iron for hoops and bolts, weight 465 lbs. 

9 lugs. 

54 nuts. 

Preservative ($1.50). 



80 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

If the silo is constructed outside, materials for roof and 
painting are to be added to tlae preceding list. 

Although most of the foregoing descriptions of stave silos 
do not mention tongued and grooved staves, the latest practice 
indicates that, if properly done, it is a decided advantage to 
have the staves matched, also slightly beveled. The silo made in 
this manner will not be so liable to go to pieces when empty. 
This is the chief objection to the stave silo, and numerous 
cases are on record where stave silos standing in exposed places 
have blown over when empty. It is recommended, therefore, that 
stave silos be attached to the barn by means of a feeding chute, 
and in the case of high or exposed silos it is well to make use of 
guy rods or wires in addition. Indeed, some manufacture's of 
stave silos now recommend these on some of their silos, and 
make provisions for them. 

Preservation of Silo. 

A silo building will not remain sound for many years unless 
special precautions are taken to preserve it. This holds good 
of all kinds of silos, but more especially of wooden ones, since 
cement coating in a stone silo, even if only fairly well made, will 
better resist the action of the silage juices than the wood-work 
will be able to keep sound in the presence of moisture, high 
temperature, and an abundance of bacterial life. 

In case of wooden silos it is necessary to apply some ma- 
terial which will render the wood impervious to water, and pre- 
serve it from decay. A great variety of preparations have been 
recommended and used for this purpose. Coal tar has been ap- 
plied by a large number of farmers, and has been found effective 
and durable. It may be put on either hot, alone or mixed with 
resin, or dissolved in gasoline. If it is to be applied hot, some 
of the oil contained in the tar must previously be burnt off. The 
tar is poured into an iron kettle, a handful of straw is ignited 
and then thrown into the kettle, which will cause the oil to 
flash and burn off. The tar is sufficiently burnt when it will 
string out in fine threads, a foot or more in length, from a stick 
which has been thrust into the blazing kettle, and afterward 
plunged into cold water. The fire is then put out by plac- 
ing a tight cover over the kettle. The kettle must be kept 
over the fire until the silo lining has been gone over. A 



PRESERVATION OF SILOS. 81 

mop or small whisk broom cut short, so it is stiff, may serve for 
putting on the tar. 

Coal tar and gasoline have also been used by many with 
good success. About half a gallon of coal tar and two-thirds 
of a gallon of gasoline are mixed at a time, stirring it while it 
is being put on. Since gasoline is highly inflammable, care 
must be taken not to have any fire around when this mixture 
is applied. Asbestos paint has also been recommended for the 
preservation of silo walls, and would seem to be well adapted 
for this purpose. 

Many silos are preserved by application of a mixture of equal 
parts of boiled linseed oil and black oil, or one part of the former 
to two of the latter. This mixture, applied every other year, be- 
fore filling time, seems to preserve the lining perfectly. In build- 
ing round silos, it is recommended to paint the boards with hot 
coal tar, and placing the painted sides face to face. 

Manufacturers of stave silos and fixtures put up special 
preparations for preserving the silos, which they send out with 
the staves. These are generally simple compounds similar to 
those given in the proceding, and are sold to customers at prac- 
tically cost price. 

Walls of wooden silos that have been preserved by one or 
the other of these methods will only keep sound and free from 
decaj^ if the silos are built so as to insure good ventilation. 
Preservatives wall not save a non-ventilated silo structure from 
decay. 

Plastered wooden silos are preserved, as we have seen, by 
applying a whitewash of pure cement as often as found neces- 
sary, which may be every two or three years. The same applies 
to stone and. cement silos. The degree of moisture and acidity 
in the silage corn will doubtless determine how often the silo 
walls have to be gone over with a cement wash; a very acid 
silage, made from immature corn, will be likely to soften the 
cement coating sooner than so-called sweet silage made from 
nearly mature corn. 

A considerable number of wood silos are in use that were 
not treated on the inside with any preservative or paint and 
have stood very well. Indeed, some writers maintain that if 
the silo is well protected on the outside, a stave silo receives little 
if any benefit from inside coatings. 



CHAPTER Hi. 

MONOLITHIC CONCRETE SILOS — METAL-LATH 
AND STEEL-RIB PLASTERED SILOS— CEMENT 
BLOCK AND CEMENT STAVE SILOS— VITRIFIED 
TILE SILOS— BRICK SILOS— ALL-METAL SILOS. 
UNDERGROUND SILOS. 



Several types of silos in which cement plays an important 
part are now in successful use in all parts of the country. Among 
them are the monolithic reinforced concrete silos, both single 
wall and double or hollow wall; metal-lath and steel-rib plas- 
tered silos; cement block and cement stave silos of various 
types; hollow brick or vitrified tile silos and brick silos. All of 
these types, as well as the all-metal silos and pit or underground 
silos will be discussed in this chapter. 

When properly constructed so as to make the walls strong, 
smooth and impervious, practically all of the types of silos men- 
tioned above have befen used with success. There maybe a dif- 
ference, of course, from the standpoint of permanence or dura- 
bility just as there is a difference in the life of various woods 
used. Aside from the really essential features, there are a num- 
ber of desirable features attached to the various types outlined 
herein; and when these are all carefully considered and bal- 
anced by the prospective silo builder, the cost, fixed largely by 
local conditions will probably be the deciding factor. 

In the past, the high first cost of all forms of concrete con- 
struction has been the chief influence against their more ex- 
tensive use, but this has been due to our insufficient knowledge 
as to the best and most economical methods in handling ma- 
terial. The price of lumber has been steadily rising, while that 
of good Portland cement has been decreasing, and good qualities 
can now be obtained at a fair price, so that this factor is largely 
removed. 

82 



MONOLITHIC SILOS. 83 

Monolithic Concrete or Cement Silos. 

The monolithic silo has reference to the one continuous solid 
mass or "as one stone" silo where the concrete is poured in forms. 
Wherever the old forms of silo construction are well established 
it is but natural that opposition to newer types should arise. 
The concrete silo, therefore, in common with some of the other 
types described in this chapter, had to gain headway in the 
face of much adverse criticism. 

Among the arguments against concrete were that the walls 
were not air or moisture-proof; that they failed as heat re- 
tainers and allowed the contents to freeze very easily; and that 
the silage acids affected the concrete causing soft, crumbly walls 
that were easily cracked. In fairness to all concerned it may 
be said that these arguments were greatly overworked. If 
properly built and painted inside with a wash of pure cement, 
concrete can be made both air-proof and moisture-proof; where 
the wood silo gains as a non-conductor of heat, it loses in having 
much thinner walls, and the double wall concrete silo largely 
overcomes freezing. As to acidity, the experience of thousands 
proves this to be practically a negligible quantity where a pure 
cement or coal tar wash is applied every two or three years, 
the acids having less effect on cement than on either metal or 
wood. Among other claimed advantages of the concrete silo are 
thes^: they neither shrink in hot, dry weather nor swell up in 
damp weather; they maintain a more even temperature; they 
are vermin proof; they will last practically forever and need 
no repairs, and they are fire-proof. 

Concrete grows stronger and tougher with age, outlasting al- 
most every other known material. Reinforced concrete, selected 
for great engineering projects such as long bridges, massive 
dams and lofty skyscrapers, is considered the strongest and 
most enduring construction known. 

"Reinforced concrete or concrete steel is very much stronger 
than ordinary concrete," say Bulletin No. 125 of the University 
of Wisconsin. "Reinforced concrete is concrete in which steel 
rods or wires are imbedded in such a way as to take the strain. 
By placing wire rods in the concrete it is possible to make the 
walls or beams much thinner or lighter than would otherwise 
b? possible and obtain the required strength. By reinforcing the 
concrete with steel much cement is saved. 



84 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



i 


^^^^9 


» 



"If it were possible to have the 
worli skillfully done a cement silo 16 
feet in diameter and 55 feet high 
could be built of I'einforced concrete 
with walls only 2 oi 3 inches thick 
and be abundantly strong. But labor 
sufficiently skilled to do this would 
cost too much, so that it would be 
cheaper to use twice as much cement; 
make wall 6 or S inches thick and use 
less skilled labor. If tha work is 
carefully done using ordinary labor 
it is practical to build silos 16 feet 
in diameter and 55 feet high with 6 
or 8 inch walls if the steel rod is laid 
in the wall every 2 or 5 fett." 

Reinforced concrete offers great 
possibilities for silo building. The 
lateral pressure on the Walls when th.' 
silo is filled is very great, but the 
circular shape renders it very easy 
to reinforce. The single- or solid wall 
is most generally used. Good four- 
inch wall silos have been built, but 
the six-inch wall offers greater convenience in placing reinforce- 
ment and justifies the use of more material. The saving of ma- 
terial by making the wall lighter at the top would hardly offset 
the trouble of varying the size of the forms. 

The double wall or hollow wall concrete silos were designed 
partly to overcome the fre.^zing of the silage which has been the 
one disadvantage of solid walls especially in cold climates. Ma- 
chines are now on the market that easily and successfully build 
reinforced and continuous hollow walls. Iowa Bulletin No. 141, 
referring doubtless to conditions in that section, states that "the 
double wall concrete silo at present is made only with patented 
forms. The inner wall is 5^4 inches thick, the outer wall 3% 
inches thick, and the two tied together with steel ties with a 
three-inch air space between. Circulation is prevented by insert- 
ing horizontal tar paper pai'titions every Zy2 feet. This construc- 
tion, besides being as satisfactory as the single ^\;all method, 



F.g. 27. L.. .._-.. ;^.x. 
and No. 17 Ohio Cut- 
ter at Experiment 
Station, Sao Paulo, 
Brazil. 



REINFORCEMENT FOR SILOS. 



85 



places il entirely above any criticism in regard to freezing. The 
patent forms being made of steel plate enable a very .'^mooth job 
to be secured. In general it would seem that the expense of a 
double wall is not justified except in cold climates." 

The foundation, as in all other concrete structures, is very 
important. Not only must it serve as an anchor to protect the 
structure against wind pressure, but it must also be very strong 
and firm or the great weight upon it will cause it to settle un- 
evenly, in which event the walls are liable to crack and so admit 
air; consequently, spoiled silage will be the result. Where there 
is a good clay floor, a concrete floor in the silo is not necessary. 

"The concrete silo when built as a monolith is practically a 
unit. Its walls and roof are bound together by a net -work of 
steel, laid in the concrete so as to withstand pressure from the 
inside," says Wisconsin Bulletin No. 214. "A silo built this way 
usually has walls six inches thick, which are reinforced in pro- 
portion to their size and capacity. The greater the height of a 
silo, the greater the pressure on the wall at the bottom." 

Anj^ silo bonded by ce- 
ment is subject to contrac- 
tion and expansion due to 
changes of moisture and 
temperature and should, 
therefore, be reinforced 
both horizontally and ver- 
tically. Perhaps the best 
reinforcement is secured 
by twisting No. 9 tele- 
phone wire together and 
forming a cable. This 
offers a rougher surface 
than the steel rods and 
forms a continuous band, 
which is very effective. The reinforcement should be laid in the 
wall about one or two inches from the outside surface. Vertical re- 
inforcement should be used in silos 25 feet high or more and is also 
convenient for binding the circular cables in place. Short three- 
foot lengths of %-inch steel rods are most satisfactory for this 
purpose as they can be hook^^d together as the silo rises and not 




Fig. 28. — Horizontal 
around silo door. 



Reinforcing 



86 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



be in the way in raising the forms. The size and spacing of hori- 
zontal reinforcing needed for silos is shown in tables reproduced 
herewith from Wisconsin Bulletin No. 214. 

Table VIII. — Amount of Reinforcement Needed for Silos. 
Size and Spacing of Horizontal Reinforcement Around Silo. 



Distance in Feet 
Measured from Top 


For Silos 14 ft. to 18 ft. in 
Diameter, Using No. 9 Wire. 


For Silos H ft, to 18 ft. in 
Diameter. Using % inch Mild 
Steel Rods. 


of Silo 


No. of Wires 
in Cable 


Distance 
Apart of Cables 


No. of Rods 


Distance 
Apart of Rods 


0—5 


2 
2 
2 
4 
4 
4 
5 
5 


Inches. 
12 
10 

8 

8 

6 

6 

6 

4 




inches. 
18 


5—10 


18 


10—15 

15—20 


14 
12 


20—25 


10 


25—50 


8 


30—55 


6 


35—40 


4 







Vertical Reinforcement. 



Height of Silo in ft. 



25—30 
30—55 
35—40 



For SUOB U ft. to 18 ft. Diameter 



Xb. of Wires in 
Each Cahle 



■ Distance 
Apart of Cables 



Inches. 
24 
24 
24 



Distance 
Apart of Rods 



Inches. 
30 
20 
14 



Figure 29 illustrates how a very satisfactory continuous door- 
way can be made by forming concrete jambs, on both sides of the 
opening, with a recess on inner side for the 2-inch plank doors to 
fit against. The forms for these jambs should be erected between 
the inner and outer forms of the silo wall, and it will be seen that 
the 1-inch ladder rounds form the binder or horizontal reinforcing 
across the door opening and should be in position and twisted 
around the vertical reinforcing rod. Spacers consisting of 2x4's 
at intervals of two feet, will hold the jamb forms apart rigidlv 
and prevent them from bulging from the pressure of the concrete. 



CONTINUOUS DOORS FOR SILOS. 



87 



The vertical jamb forms may be made in sections of any con- 
venient length, preferably from six to twelve feet. 




Fig. 29. — Continuous Doorway, with concrete jambs, showing man- 
ner of anchoring to the vertical reinforcing, and position of 
plank doors. 

— Courtesy Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago. 



Care should be taken to have the wooden forms absolutely 
vertical. All surfaces of wood which will come into contact with 
the concrete should be planed and oiled, which will insure a 
smooth surface and prevent the wood from adhering to the con- 
crete. Pull illustrated details regarding constructions of this 
kind will be found in catalogs issued by several cement manufac- 
turers. 

Local conditions largely govern the cost of concrete silos. The 
ruling factors are the price of gravel and cement and the cost 
of labor. An investigation was made during the spring of 1911 
by a large concrete manufacturing company to ascertain the 
actual cost of 78 monolithic silo.s scattered through Minnesota, 



88 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 

Wisconsin, Illinois, and Michigan. The total cost included ma- 
terial, labor, superintendence and all miscellaneous expenses in- 
curred in preparing the silos, ready to receive the crops. Where 
sand and gravel were obtained on the farm the expense of haul- 
ing plus a fair price for materials was included. The average 
cost of the 78 silos was $2.50 per ton capacity. The 20 silos 
having capacity 100 tons or less cost $2.89 per ton. 32 silos with 
capacity from 100 to 200 tons cost $2.38 per ton. The remaining 
26 silos having capacity of more than 200 tons each, cost $2.18 
per ton capacity. 



. ffOPS Pd-ACED Z 

PART TyiMO troop 

i^(At-U. POOS 





Fig. 30. — Showing method of tying roof to wall, and of rein- 
forcing across door opening. 

— Courtesy Wisconsin Bulletin No. 214. 

We quote from Bulletin No. 125 of the Wisconsin station. 

"A common type ol form used in making a continuous wall 
or monolithic structure is illustrated in Fig. 31. A is the outside 
form and B the inside form. These forms are made as segments 
of the circle 6 or 10 feet in length and 1% to 5 feet deep. A 
form is made by taking two pieces of plank 2x12 or 2x14, LL and 
UU, Fig. 51 A, sawing them out to the curvature of the circle. 
These are placed horizontally as girts and the short planks P are 
set vertically nailing them to the girts, LU. The form 31 B is 
made in the reverse of 51 A. 

"In building the wall, form B is set inside of form A and 6 to 
12 inches from it depending on the thickness desired for thef wall, 
and the concrete is filled in between the forms." 

The building of a concrete silo involves careful attention to 
the construction and proper bracing of the forms or moulds, and 
to the reinforcing and the bonding of the various courses. It is 
therefore suggested that unless a farm r has had some experience 



FORMS FOR CONCRETE SILOS. 



89 




Form 



Fig. 31, -^Illustrates method of making form for constructing con- 
crete walls. The forms are made of plank and are made in 
sections 4 to 10 feet long, requiring 5 to 8 sections to complete 
the circle. 

— Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station. 

with other concrete work about the farm, he should not attempt 
to build the silo himself but should turn the job over to a con- 
crete contractor under a guarantee for only a first-class silo. 

The difficulty and expense connected with the preparation of 
proper forms has led to the adoption of co-operative effort in 
many sections. Some of the corn belt AgTicultural Colleges make 
a practice of loaning to farmers at a nominal cost a set of forms 
together with the services of an expert. Manufacturers of mould 
and mixing equipment are also attempting to supply farmers with 
monolithic reinforced silos at minimum cost. One of these, 
known as the MONSCO, has a standarized outfit, consisting of 
scaffold-hoi.;t with derrick, steel moulds for walls and chute, and 
power mixer. The moulds are made in two circles each 3 feet in 
height, divided into easily handled segments. Six feet of wall 
per day is poured, reinforcement and ladder irons being installed 



90 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



at the same time and chute also being poured. The walls are 6 
inches thick from top to bottom. The reinforcement used is 
American Steel and Wire Company cold-drawn triangular mesh, 
woven in various weights. This mesh provides sufficient vertical 
reinforcement to prevent temperature cracks. 

Hy-Rib Concrete and Metal Lath Reinforced Silos. 

The Hy-Rib Concrete Silo, so-called because of its steel-rib 
basis, has recently met with considerable success. It applies to 
silo building the principles of monolithic reinforced construction 
so successfully used in other buildings. In this type of silo no 
forms or framework for the walls are required. Sheets of stiff, 
firm steel sheathing are used, having a rough open surface, and 
one inch projecting ribs every four inches of height. These 
sheets are about two feet wide by 10 or 12 feet long. The first 
round of sheathing is, of course, properly imbedded and anchored 
in the foundation wall. 




Fig. 33. — Cross Section of Foundation of Hy-Rib Silo. — Courtesy 
Trussed Concrete Steel Co., Youngstown. 

The following printed matter has come to our attention and 
gives more complete information on reinforced cement and concrete 
silo construction. 

Bulletin No. 255, "Cement Silos in Michigan," published by Ex- 
periment Station, East Lansing. Mich. "Silo Construction in 
>.'ebraska," by Agricultural Experiment Station, Lincoln, Nebr. 
Bulletin No. 100, "Modern Silo Construction," and No. 107, "The Iowa 
Silo," published by Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 405, "Cement Silos," and No. 689, "Home Made Silos," 
by the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 
and booklets on "Concrete Silos," published by the Universal Port- 
land Cement Co.. Chicago, Ills., The Trussed Concrete Steel Co., 
Youngstown, Ohio, and Monolithic Silo and Construction Co., 
Chicago. Ills. 



METAL-LATH PLASTERED SILOS. 91 

The Hy-Rib Concrete Silo differs from the metal-lath silo in 
that the latter requires a temporary framework of 2x4 studding 
on which to tack the lath, whereas in the steel-rib silo, the sheets 
of steel are thoroughly locked together at both sides and ends, 
forming a firm, self -sustained framework or foundation of itself. 
To this the concrete is applied in the form of a l:2i4 waterproof 
cement plaster to a total thickness of from 3 to S^a inches, as 
shown in the illustration, Fig. 33. Indeed, the manufacturers 
claim that they have silos of this construction in use 20x58 feet 
in size with the walls at the thickest point not more than 2% 
inches. 

The Metal Lath Plastered Cement Silo also stands well to the 
front, from the standpoint of strength, economy and practicabil- 
ity. It is put up without forms except for the door posts and 
studding, the cement being applied in the form of plaster to both 
the inside and outside of the metal lath. This is accomplished by 
tacking the lath to the inside of the temporary frame work of 
2x4 studding and applying several coats of cement or plaster, the 
studding then being removed and the outside plastered. Where 
materials used in construction are excessively high in price, it 
will prove cheaper to erect than the monolithic structure because 
the walls are only about three inches thick. Skilled labor is re- 
quired for this type of silo. Care must be taken to prevent the 
various coats of cement from drying out rapidly, otherwise the 
next coat will not form a perfect union and the strength of the 
wall will be reduced. When properly constructed this silo will 
be found amply strong for the work required. 

After the good solid concrete foundation is finished, a four-or- 
five-platform scaffold must be erected inside, before any other work 
is done. The form for the continuous door frame should then be 
built on the ground, complete with all reinforcing, and raised to po- 
sition. 2x4 studding, with plates on top, are then placed in position 
and fastened. The 24-gauge expanded metal or metal-lath is then 
tacked to the inside with double-pointed tacks, beginning at the 
top and at the door post. Each strip of lath should be tacked first 
in the middle and should conform to the circular shape of the silo 
before the ends are tacked. After the several layers of cement 
or plaster have been applied and are dry, the studding may be 
removed and additional horizontal reinforcement in the form of 
strands of heavy wire should be placed around the silo, care being 



92 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



taken to anchor same to vertical reinforcement in the door posts 
before any mortar is placed. A silo 16 by 30 feet will require 150 
pounds of additional wire reinforcement. The silo should be 
plastered on the outside at least one inch in thickness. A metal- 
lath silo of the above dimensions, of about 120 tons capacity, can 
be built for from $225 to $275. The cost of these silos has not 
exceeded three dollars a ton capacity in any case, the average be- 
ing- considerably less than this amount. 

Mr. George C. Wheeler of the Kansas Agricultural College Ex- 
tension Service says: "The first round of the metal-lath which 
forms the chief reinforcement of this silo, must have Its edge em- 
bedded 5 or 6 inches in the top of the foundation in order to in- 
sure a perfect union between the foundation and the wall proper. 
When the trench has been filled to within about 6 inches of the 
top and the concrete brought to an approximate level, the lath, 
which comes in strips 8 feet long and 18 inchts wide, should be 
stood on edge and concrete poured on both sides of it. Its posi- 
tion should be on a circle having a radius 2 inches greater than 
the inside radius of the finished silo. As the strips of lath are 
stood up and the mortar poured in, they should be carefully 
curved and their exact position determined. The strips of lath 
should be lapped about three inches at the ends, and when the 
circle is completed the wall outside of the lath should be leveled. 
The wall, while still green, should be smoothed up as much as 
possible." 

Modifications — Double 
and Single Wall. — A mod- 
ification of this type of 
meta^l lath construction is 
shown in the illustration of 
Fig. 34. In this it will be 
seen that the lath or rib- 
bed-steel is tacked to both 
the inside and the outside 
of the studding and plas- 
tered or cemented, forming 
a double or hollow wall 
construction. This would 

doubtless I'equire less skill- _ 

, , , ^, , ^, Fig. 34. — Showing double wall mt-t- 

ed labor than where the „i i n, -i r~i ^ ^ , 

al-lath silo. — Courtesy General 

studding is removed, and Fireproofing Co., Youngstown. 

the double wall would bet- 
ter adapt it for cold climates. A single wall silo of 




CEMENT BLOCK SILOS. 



93 



this same type is built by replacing the studding with % inch 
vertical rods to which every rib of the metal is firmly wired. In 
this way only one wall of the ribbed-steel is used and it is plas- 
tered on both sides to a total thickness of about 2% inches. 

Cement Block Silos. 

Tlie c-nient block silo is sometimes preferable to other types. 
It will be found cheaper and easier to erect than the monolithic 
concrete silo and although perhaps not so strong as the solid 
wall, it IS probably as good as any silo when properly con- 
structed. The architectviral effect is very pleasing, especially 
where the rough exterior is used. The blocks should be well 
made and plenty of reinforcement used. The reinforcement con- 
sists of steel bands or rods laid in the wall between the courses as 
in brick or stone construction. They should be entirely cov- 
ered by mortar to protect them from rust. 

Cement blocks are easily made at home or may be secured 
at numerous factories. In many cases the manufacturers will 
move out their forms, mixers and other utensils and make the 
blocks at the building site at less expense than for the monolith. 
This is because the work can be done with greater facility on 
the ground level than up in the air on scaffolding. With a little 
practice any mason can learn how to lay the blocks and follow 

specifications. 

^^ ^ y^\ y^'^y^ The Nebraska Agricultural Experiment 

I ] ! I Tv . .. station Bulletin, No. 138, has the follo\y- 

I ^-" ' ^y^ ing regarding c.ment block silos: "There 

I "' ^ are three general types of blocks which 

can be used for silo construction, the solid 

block, the hollow block and the two-piece 

block. These blocks may have rough or 

smooth outsides and may be either curved 

or straight. The straight blocks, of 

course, will need to be plastered on the 

inside to produce a smooth surface to the 

silo. 

"When cement blocks are made very 
fast, it is essential that the mixture of 
which the body of the block is made be 
Type of con- Quite dry. Concrete when used in this 
block which ^^'^^ is quite porous. If the face of the 
can be used in silo l^lo^ks can- either be of a much richer 
construction mixture than the body of the block or 

b ^ made of very wet concrete and trow- 
eled, a much better block for silo construction can be made. It is 




94 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



preferable that the face of the block be both richer and wetter 
than the body of the block; also, if the face of the block be trow- 
eled it makes a block which will not absorb moisture. Whenever 
it is not possible to make or obtain blocks of this nature the in- 
side of the silo should be plastertd after the Vi^alls are laid. If 
the expense of plastering- is too great, the walls can be washed 
or painted with a mixture of one part cement and one part fine 
screened sand. This will take the place of plastering as far 
as sealing the pores in the blocks is concerned, but does not 
leave the wall as smooth as plaster. 

"The solid block, such as is shown by 'a,' Figure 5.5, is ad- 
visable only when a machine has to be made and one cannot 
be constructed which will make the hollow blocks. This solid 
block is more quicklj' made than the others, but requires more 
material, is heavier and harder to handle, and conducts heat 
and cold more readily." 

The two-piece blocks such as shown by "b," FMgure 35, are 
made to lay up in the silo wall so that the leg of one in the inside 
wall will overlap the leg of one in the outside wall but in the 




Fig. 36. — Showing how the two-piece cement block 
is laid in the wall and the door frame. 

course above it. Figure 36 shows that these blocks make nearly 
a perfect dead-air space so that the silage is less apt to freeze, 
as heat will not be transferred back and forth through the walls 
as readily. Blocks made in the above manner can have a 
wetter and richer mixture in the face than in the back and 
the face can also be trowelrd. 



CEMENT BLOCK SILOS. 



95 




Fig. 37. — Illustrates a type of concrete block used in silo 
construction. H H are holes left in blocks. T and M 
are dove-tailed tenon and mortise so made that blocks 
interlock when laid on the wall. G is a groove made in 
block to imbed iron rod for reinforcing the wall. 

— Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station. 

The Nebraska Station has designed a special machine for 
making these two-piece blocks and also a machine which will 
make the single piece hollow block as shown in "c," Figure 35. 
This block cannot be made as fast as the two-piece block but 
is much easier to lay. It gives the troweled surface inside but 
not outside nor does it give as perfect a dead-air space. 




Fig. 38. — This form of block requires less material and does 
not freeze so readily as the solid block. Note manner 
of reinforcing by %-in. iron binders. 

Commercial blocks like "d" Figure 55 are very common. They 
may be either straight or cur\-ed to fit the curvature of the silo. 
Being generally very porous they should be plastered on the 
inside after being put into the wall. Curved blocks require less 
plaster but plaster must be used anyway and a straight block 
not exceeding 16 inches in length will make a good silo. The 
usual dimensions of curved blocks are 8x8x16 or 24 inches. 

Cement blocks are usually made of finer materials than are 
the solid monolithic walls. The blocks are made of sand and 
cement; or if any gravel is used it is very fine gravel whereas, 
in the continuous wall monolithic construction, coarser gravel or 



96 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



crushed stone is more commonly used. This is one of the 
reasons why the monolithic wall is stronger than the block wall. 

Good block silos can be put up with home-made blocks and 
by home labor, but an experienced contractor is recommended, 
if convenient. No blocks that are cracked, broken or crumbly, 
should be used, and all blocks should have good water-resisting 
qualities. A small amount of water placed on the surface, if 
readily absorbed, indicates a poor block for silo purposes. 

The Iowa Bulletin No. Ill says that "the practice of using 
wooden studs for the door frame in mortar at the ends of the 
blocks and at each side of the doorway and bolted to the steel 
frame cannot be criticised too severely. This stud is placed 
under conditions best adapted to cause rapid decay. Often it 
is so constructed that it cannot be replaced without much diffi- 
culty and thus the durability of the entire structure is impaired 
by the use of a single part." Fig. 39 illustrates a poured con- 
crete door frame that avoids this difficulty. 




Fig. 39. — Continuous door opening for concrete block silo 
View shows the manner of fastening reinforcing rods 
to the door frames, also of anchoring rods around a block 
instead of lapping. 
— Courtesy Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago. 



FOUNDATION AND ROOF TYPES. 



97 




Foundations. — Concrete 
block silos require heavier 
foundation footings than do 
clay block or wooden silos. 
They should not be less 
than 28 inches wide at the 
bottom and 2 feet deep. 
A mixture of one part ce- 
ment, three parts sand, and 
six parts broken stone or 
course g-ravel will make a 
mixture for the footings and 
foundation walls. 



Fig. 40. — Two types of foun- 
dation for cement block 
silos. — Courtesy Nebraska 
Station. 

The Roof. — Figure 41 illustrates 
the cornice work and forms for a 
concrete roof to correspond in per- 
manence and fire-proof qualities 
with the remainder of the silo. A 
one-third pitch is recommended. 




Fig. 41. — Illustrating how 
to build cornice for con- 
crete roof on a concrete 
block silo. — Courtesy Ne- 
braska Station. 



Patented Reinforcements. — The weak point in any sectional 
block construction is in the joints between the blocks and the 
attempts to overcome this are demonstrated in many forms 
of patented reinforced cement blocks now being used for 
silo building. Where the blocks are made of a poured or gravity 
mixture, using the best quality of cement, sand and gravel ob- 
tainable, they are extremely dense and strong. One of these, 
known as the Hurst System, uses blocks 24x12x4 inches thick. 
Running laterally through each block are two % inch round 



98 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 




steel rods, the ends 
of which are turned 
up two inches in small 
recesses in each end 
of the block. When 
the blocks are laid 
into the silo wall, 
these turned ends 
and recesses match 
corresponding ones 
in the adjoining 
block, as shown in 
Fig. 42. A % inch 
round steel link is 
then slipped over the 
two turned ends 
which are afterwards bent back and drawn tight and the recess 
filled in with cement. This method of construction is said to be 
very powerful and to give excellent results. 

Another method similar to the above, known as the Harvey 
system, uses reinforcing rods which are turned at right angles, 
one turned vertically hooking over the other turned laterally. 
Upright rods are imbedded in each block and fit between blocks 
of the course above. This permits the building of a double wall 
if desired, the two walls being tied together with steel strips 
running diagonally between the upright rods. 



Fig. 42. — Showing one method of sec- 
tional block reinforcement. — Cour- 
tesy Hurst Silo Co., Chicago. 



Cement Stave Silo. 

The cement stave silo is built of concrete slabs or staves 30 
inches long, about 10 inches wide and 2V2 inches thick. They 
have a curved interlocking edge and are built into a wall, 
forming a wall of thickness of the block and bound together 
with hoops on the outside. With good quality blocks, properly 
treated with a water-proof wash so as to be impei^ious, this 
type of silo is a success. It is claimed for them that all danger 
of cracking due to contraction and expansion is eliminated. 
For this reason although the steel hoops are not protected they 
need no adjustment when once set. 



VITRIFIED TILE SILOS. 99 

Vitrified Tile Silos. 

Vitrified clay blocks have during the past few years com- 
manded considerable attention for building purposes. The dura- 
bility of this material is indicated in a quotation from Sir Charles 
Lyell's Antiquity of Man. 

"Granite disintegrates and crumbles into particles of mica, 
quartz, and feldspar; marble soon moulders into dust or car- 
bonate of lime, but hard, well burnt clay endures forever in the 
ancient landmarks of mankind." 

It is not surprising therefore that vitrified tile or blocks 
are being used extensively for silo building. They have a hard, 
glass-like crockery surface, impervious alike to gas, moisture, 
acid or air; they withstand temperature fluctuations without 
contraction or expansion; they give the advantages of a double 
or triple wall with dead-air spaces; they are easily handled; 
and when properly reinforced against the bursting pressure 
of the silage they have no superior on the market. 

Iowa Bulletin No. 141 states that "in clay blocks there are 
many grades of quality ranging from almost worthlessness to 
one of the highest quality of building material known. These 
variations in quality are due mainly to three causes, quality 
of raw material, method of burning, and defects in forming. 

"Brick clays are made up principally of two classes of ma- 
terial, one that melts at temperatures usually secured in the 
hottest portions of the brick kilns, and one that remains firm 
at these same temperatures. Proper portions of each of these 
classes of material are essential. The former, called the fluxing 
material melts and binds together particles of the latter, while 
the latter preserves the desired form of the brick or block 
throughout the burning process. It will be readily seen that as 
the fluxing material fuses it will flll all of the space between 
the other particles, and upon extreme heating it flows out over 
the surface giving it a glassy appearance. This process is known 
as vitrification. 

"In all kilns the blocks nearest the fire become burned harder 
than the other blocks and in any kiln only a portion of the 
blocks will be fit for silo construction. For this reason silo 
builders should not expect to secure such blocks at less than 
standard prices plus a reasonable price for sorting." 

A variety of patented clay blocks and different methods of 
reinforcement are now in use. Many of these have special 
merits in the details. In general, the same methods of wire or 
steel bands are used as with cement block silos. A study 
of some of the patented blocks illustrated in Fig. 43 will bring 



100 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



out many of the details of construction. A represents a block 
with curved recess at top and bottom for reinforcing rods and 

a flange on each side of the block 
so that the bulk of the mortar 
iQull r^^jl ' ^^ confined in the wide groove 

"^ and only a very narrow strip 

exposed. B calls attention to 
the mitred groove at top and 
bottom for reinforcing rods to 
form a lock joint. The narrow 
apertures on each side of block 
form a tongue-and-groove mor- 
tar joint when laid in the wall. 
C and D illustrate the door jamb 
and regular blocks of another 
type. It will be noticed that 
D gives plenty of room on top 
for mortar and reinforcement. 
Still another type of silo is indi- 
cated by the blocks E, F, G, H 
and I. E and P are door jamb 
blocks. G is a glazed floor or 
paving block. H and I show 
two views of the regular wall 
block. J illustrates the cast iron 
door sill and K indicates the 





Fig. 43. — Group of Patented Clay Blocks of various manu- 
facturers. 



FOUNDATIONS FOR BLOCK SILOS. 101 

reinforcement across door opening-. L, M, N and O, P, Q show 
two types of door jambs and regular bloclcs put out by another 
manufacturer. N indicates the vertical reinforcement next to 
the door around which the wall reinforcing steel is placed. The 
galvanized iron tie R for the door opening is shown in position 
on top of the block O. 




Tile belovY qroond 
line to be i>eb on 
end and. filled 
•vibh concrete 




A- or S-Concnefce rioot^ 

Cinder filling and tile drain, if necessory 

Fig. 44. — Showing two methods of preparing the founda- 
tion for clay block silos. (Courtesy Iowa Experiment 
Station.) 






The Iowa silo is a hollow clay tile silo that was designed by the 
Agricultural Engineering section of the Iowa Station. It is 
very popular as it does not require special blocks. The Iowa 
Silo is simple in construc- 
tion, durable, efficient and 
reasonably cheap where the 
tile can be obtained. It is 
built of regular clay hollow- 
building blocks similar to 
those shown in the illustra- 
tion of Figure 47. The tile 
are laid in cement mortar 
which contains just enough 
lime to make the mortar stick 
well (one part cement, one- 
third part lime, two to three 
parts sand). Number three 




Fig. 46. — Clay block silo 
foundation. — (Nebraska 
Bulletin No. 138.) 



102 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



wire is laid in for reinforcement, the amount of wire used being 
adjusted to meet the demands of the lateral pressure. The inside 
of the tile may be plastered or simply washed with a cement 
wash. 





Fig. 47. — Five types of clay blocks Fig. 48. — Silo 

which can be used for silo con- cornice for 

struction. "A" is 5"x8"x24"; "B" clay block 

is 5"x8"xl6"; "C" is 4"x8"xl6"; silo. 

"D" is 5"x5"xl6"; and "E" is 
4"x5"xl6". (Cuts from Nebraska 
Bulletin No. 138.) 

Figures 44. 46 and 48 illustrate methods of constructing the 
fOTindation and cornice for clay block silos. 

Brick Silos. 

In constructing a brick silo it will be well to guard the fol- 
lowing points: Make the foundation of concrete and let the 
first course of brick come flush on the inside with the cement 
work. Bed a flve-eighths inch iron hoop in the cement wall in 
the upper part before laying the brick, in order to keep the 
pressure of brick from spreading the wall before it becomes 
set and hard. Make a two-inch air space in the walls up to 
within one-third of the top. This will make a 14-inch wall of 
three courses of brick. The air space should be in the outer 
part of the wall. Iron tie rods should also be laid around in 
the wall between the doors, as recommended in the foundation. 
It is also important that the brick should be wet when laid, 
otherwise the mortar in which they are laid will be dried out 
too rapidly. The walls should be plastered over very smoothly 
with a coat of rich cement, one-fourth to one-half inch thick, 
and then every two or three years this should be well white- 
washed with thin cement, to keep the wall protected from the 
effects of acid in the silos. King recommends that the door 



BRICK AND ALL-METAL SILOS. lU?} 

jambs be made of 3x6's or 5x8"s, rabbetted two inches deep to 
receive the door on the inside. The center of the jambs outside 
should be grooved and a tongue inserted projecting three-fourths 
of an inch outward to set back into the mortar, and thus secure 
a thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb. The doors 
may be made of two layers of matched flooring with tarred 
paper between, and lag screw bolted to the jamb, so as to give a 
perfect smooth face next to the silage. 

Single Wall Brick Silo. — A 100 ton reinforced brick silo was 
built in 1909 by the West Virginia Experiment Station at Mor- 
gantown, and described in their Bulletin 129. The wall was laid 
up the width of a brick or 4 inches thick with 20d annealed wire 
nails imbedded in the cement mortar so that the ends projected 
from the wall about 2 inches into the silo. When the cement 
mortar had hardened, woven wire fencing was cut into pieces 
of proper length and fastened close to the inside of brick wall 
with the clinched nails. Two thicknesses of wire were used for 
lower half of silo and one thickness for upper half. Each strip 
lapped 2 inches over the one beneath. This wire was thor- 
oughly covered with cement mortar of one part cement and three 
parts sand. Prof. Atwood writes (Aug., 1914) that the silo 
has given excellent satisfaction. He recommends, however, that 
the wire fencing should have perfectly straight horizontal wires, 
no coils, as the coils stand out from the brick work and necessitate 
more plastering. Many silos of this type have been constructed 
during the past two years, especially in the South. 



AU-Metal Silos. 

The canned fruits and vegetables for our tables remain good 
indefinitely so long as air is absolutely excluded. The admission 
of air, in however slight degree, produces mold and rot, and 
destroys a very considerable part of the food value. 

Where tests have been made, silos made of metal or lined with 
metal, have been found to most nearly approach the air-tight 
containers in which we buy our canned vegetables, and if these 
metal cans are good for our dainty table delicacies why are 
they not good for our "canned corn" known as silage? 

The fact that over 2,000 metal silos are now in use in this 



104: 



SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 



country and that their sales are rapidly- increasing, is the best 
evidence of the entire satisfaction they have given. 

Metal silos are not new. They have been in use in Australia 
for nearly 20 years. It is claimed for them that they are "wind- 
proof, fire-proof, crack-proof, shrinkage-proof, vermin-proof, ex- 
pansion and contraction-proof, collapse-proof, repair-proof; there 
are no hoops to tighten, no anchors or guy wires to install; they 
are highly rust-resistant; they are absolutely non-porous, hence 
are moisture-tight and above all positively air-tight." 




Fig. 45. — Two large Metal Silos and Ohio Cutter at Wagner Bros., 
Groom, Texas. — Courtesy Perfection Metal Silo Co., Topeka, 
Kansas. 



The first commercial metal silo, erected in Iowa in 1907, is still 
giving very satisfactory service. "It was built of interchangeable 
sections, which were bolted together by means of flanges extend- 
ing outwardly all around each section. This method of con- 



ALL-METAL SILOS. 105 

struction forms a rigid reinforcement of the silo wall, and pro- 
vides an easy and practical means of increasing the capacity of 
the silo at any time, by bolting on additional sections to the 
top. It also makes it practical to move the silo by taking the 
sections apart and re-erecting them in another location." 

Mr. Charles P. Buck, writing for the Kansas State Board 
of Agriculture in 1914, says: "The metal silos are made air- 
tight by sealing the joints between the sections with a cement 
of an elastic nature, unaffected by moisture, cold or heat. The 
silo also is provided with a means by which the doors, through 
which the ensilage is thrown down into the feed boxes, are 
sealed absolutely air-tight, thus avoiding one serious cause of 
spoilage and loss. 

"The two questions which usually arise regarding silos con- 
structed of metal are regarding the action of the silage juices 
on the metal and the radiation of the heat of fermentation 
through the metal wall. 

"Silage juice, after the fermentation, is slightly acid, con- 
taining minute quantities of acetic and lactic acids. It is cus- 
tomary to protect metal silos against the mild acids of this 
juice by painting the interior with an asphaltum paint, which 
forms a cheap, durable and reliable protection. 

"The question of the effect of radiated heat loss during fer- 
mentation is best answered by the results obtained in the 2,000 
or more metal silos now in use. In these it has been found 
that the silage next to the wall is as thoroughly fermented and 
as well preserved and palatable as that in the center of the 
silo. There probably is some heat lost by radiation, but there 
is apparently sufficient heat produced during the fermentation 
to supply all that is necessary despite the radiat, d loss. 

"Practical use in the field has demonstrated that the metal 
silo has every good quality which has been desired in a silo. 
Once erected it is permanently air-tight and moisture-proof. 
The form of construction so reinforces it that it is secure against 
high winds, it requires practically no care or expense to main- 
tain, and produces ensilage without mold or rot and consequent 
loss. 

"Properly constructed metal silos need no guy wires, cables 
nor anchors. They are secured in a foundation of concrete in 
much the sam? way as are modern structural steel smokestacks 
of immense height. 

"The leading manufacturers, have by careful experiments 



106 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD._ 

fovmd that it is possible to produce a metal that is fully re- 
sistent to the chemical action of the silage juices, which thus 
obviates the probability of any rust or corrosion of any kind. 

"Properly constructed metal silos are so strong an^ rigiKl-^as 
to be readily insured against cyclones and wind storms. Otie 
leading manufacturer, in fact, provides purchasers with sucb 
insurance without cost. Metal silos are fireproof and are proof 
against lightning without the necessity of lightning rods. 

"The original manufacturer has silos in use in nine different 
states, from Mexico to Minnesota, in all extremes of climatic 
conditions, and over a considerable period of years. As a result 
of the satisfactory experience, a great many types of metal 
silos have been devised, from those riveted up like a railroad 
water tank, various types of partly riveted and partly bolted 
sections, to those of interchangeable sections with various types 
of flanges. The type apparently most in favor, however, is 
that first brought out. Numbers of metal silos are in use as irri- 
gation water tanks during the sum.iier when empty of silage. 

"Any question of the durability of metal silos has long since 
been completely answered by their continued use without appar- 
ent defects, rust or corrosion of any kind. Their use is rapidly 
growing in all sections of the country. East and West, and results 
are everywhere perfectly satisfactory." 

Manufacturers furnish metal silos in uniform sized sheets or 
sections, finished complete ready to bolt into the silo. The 
sheets are interchangeably matching and are about two feet 
wide by 7% feet long. Different gauges of metal are used, some 
having a strength of 45,000 pounds to the square inch. Lighter 
material is used toward the top in proportion to the diminishing 
pressure exerted by the silage. Appurtenances such as doors, 
roofing sections, bar-iron, bolts, joint-cement, paint, etc., are 
usually boxed or crated. 

Painting. — Metal silos should be painted once a year, long 
enough before filling to set well. The reason for this is given 
by one manufacturer as follows: 

"In the production of silage certain mild acids are formed 
by fermentation, which, if no protection was offered would have 
a tendency to cause the metal to corrode. To provide against 
this, it is advisable to keep the inside of the silo painted with 
some elastic, acid-resisting paint. Siich paints are put up by 
practically all of the best paint manufacturers. Any good paint, 
with an asphaltum or gilsonite base, that is prepared .so that 
it will not dry too quickly, can be depended upon. ^Ve suggest 
asphaltum or gilsonite, because such paints are thoroughly satis- 
factory, and the cost is considerably less than that of some 
other kinds." 



ROOF AND FOUNDATION. 107 

The Metal Silo Roof. — The roof adds greatly to the appear- 
ance of the metal silo and protects it against undue wind strain 
or vibration. In northern climates it acts as a protection against 
snow and freezing, and in warmer zones against the extreme 
heat of the sun which would cause considerable loss between 
feedings. It is an added expense, of course, and as rain is not 
injurious to silage the roof is considered superfluous in some 
sections of the Southwest. The permanent roof also prevents 
tramping or filling to the top of the silo, causing both spoilage 
and loss of capacity. Despite these objections, however, the 
majority of purchasers seem to prefer the roof. 

Foundation. — Too much care cannot be taken in bviilding the 
foundation of a metal silo. Solid ground is the first essential be- 
cause the silo with its contents is very heavy. The foundation 
wall and fioor should be of concrete of ordinary 1:2:4 propor- 
tions. The wall should be at least 12 inches thick and extend 
6 inches below fi'eezing point or about 3 feet in the ground — deep 
enough to prevent the frost from heaving the silo out of level 
and to prevent rats from digging under. The first row of metal 
sheets should be imbedded in the center of the wall at least 12 
Inches deep. 

Freezing in Metal Silos. — In extremely cold climates silage 




Fig. 49. — Large Metal Silo on Sunny Slope Farm, Emporia Kas., 
being filled with Silver's Ohio No. 22 Cutter. 



108 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 

will sometimes freeze in any kind of silo, but it must be very 
severe and protracted cold weather to freeze silage very deeply 
because of its own generated heat. Metal silo manufacturers 
contend that while the so-called double— or hollow — wall silos are 
slower to freeze than some other types, they are also much 
slower to thaw; that unlike other silos, freezing and thawing has 
no injurious effects on the metal silo, or on its contents; that 
silage freezing to the sides of ordinary silos requires to be 
chipped away with danger of injury to the walls; whereas the 
sun beating against the metal walls for a few hours on the cold- 
est winter day melts the silage loose; and that metal silos are 
giving satisfaction in northern territories where the thermometer 
hovers around 20 degrees below zero for weeks at a time. 

Detailed directions regarding the building of foundations 
and the erecting of metal silos will be found in the catalogs 
of metal silo manufacturers, which should be secured by anyone 
interested in this type of silo. 

Pit or Underground Silos. 

Pit or underground silos date back to antiquity. For over fifty 
years they have been demonstrating their value in Europe, not 
only in preserving silage but in economy of construction. The 
pit method of storing green feeds had been followed for many 
years before the advent of the modern silo or silo filler. The fact 
that the above-ground silo ever since its introduction has made 
such rapid strides in comparison, would indicate that this type is 
far more satisfactory in actual use. 

In the United States the underground silo is distinctly a West- 
ern type, having its highest degree of adaptability in those sec- 
tions visited by sparse rain fall and where the water table is not 
near the earth's surface. These silos are therefore numerous in 
Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado and the Western parts 
of Kansas and Nebraska. Norton County alone in Kansas has 
ever 100 pit silos. Some are in use in the semi-arid parts of 
South Dakota as well as in Illinois, Michigan and other states. 
They are NOT adapted to humid sections or to localities subject 
to regular and heavy rain fall. 

The underground silo is generally considered a temporary ex- 
pedient or makeshift and it seems to show up to best advantage 



PIT OR UNDERGROUND SILOS. 109 

where but very few cattle are fed. That it is a makeshift, however, 
should not deter farmers from building such silos in case they can 
not see their way clear to erect a better silo. Even a cheap silo 
properly built serves a good purpose in demonstrating the value 
of the silo and in helping its owner to come into possession of 
better equipment and a silo more to his liking. 

Analysis of comments in the farm press for the past two years 
reveals a number of advantages claimed for this type of silo. 
Among these advantages may be mentioned the following: 

1. Little cash expenditure is required. Labor is the chief 
item. Where labor is exchanged there remains only the cost of 
cement and sand for plastering the walls and making the concrete 
collar around top. 2. It is easily constructed, requiring very little 
skilled or outside help. 5. The silage keeps perfectly if well 
packed. The temperature remains even winter and summer — no 
freezing or thawing. 4. It will resist tornado and fire. It cannot 
blow over or rot down. 5. Because inexpensive, two small deep 
silos may be built, keeping one for summer feeding or for use 
should crops fail entirely. 6. No expensive forms are required for 
building. 7. No trouble with ill-fltting doors, or with loose hoops, 
or cracks. 8. Anyone can make it who can dig a cistern. 9. A 
more inexpensive silage cutting equipment may be used, enabling 
each farmer to own his own machine so that it can stay on the 
job and refill as silage settles, thus securing utmost capacity at 
minimum cost. 10. The top surface is handy, where it can be 
tramped regularly the first few days. 11. When built in the 
right soil it will last just in proportion to how well it is con- 
structed and cared for, bearing in mind the necessity of guarding 
against caving in, seepage, etc. 

The most common objection to the pit silo is the inconvenience 
in getting the silage out of the hole, which would have to be deep 
enough to secure pressure for proper packing and keeping quali- 
ties, and should therefore be at least twice as deep as the diameter 
of the silo. Some kind of hoisting apparatus would be necessary. 
This would be too laborious and inconvenient unless operated by 
a gasoline engine or other power which would, of course, increase 
the expense. 

The claim has been made that the extra cost of getting the 
silage out of an underground silo would be more than' offset by the 



110 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. 

paving effected in filling, but this hardly holds ti'ue, as with 
modern machinery it is little more expensive to fill a silo above 
groxmd than one below the surface. 

The failure of the silage to thoroughly pack by its own weight 
is one of the principle draw-backs to the pit silo. This is on ac- 
count of the lack of depth so much in evidence in structures of 
this kind. 

Another objection to the silo is that poisonous gases are likely 
to accumulate in the bottom and render the silo dangerous to en- 
ter. Lowering a light would soon discover the presence of such 
carbon dioxide gas which if present would immediately put the 
light out. These gases are heavier than air and the air would 
have to be agitated to dispel them since there is no air drainage 
in an underground silo. 

Again, unless the soil is dry and very hard or has excellent 
drainage there would be the danger of water seeping into the 
hole and thus spoiling the silage. The likelihood of caving in 
either while building or after the first silage crop was taken out 
would also have to be overcome. 

Some of the essentials in building underground silos aside 
from firm dry soil are that they should have a curb or collar ex- 
tending from below frost line to a few inches above ground; that 
they should be plastered from % to 2 or 5 inches thick and washed 
with a cement coat to make them water- and air-tight, the walla 
being sprinkled lightly before plastering, if dry; that the walls 
should be smooth and perpendicular for even, solid settling; that 
a cover should be provided as a protection against children, ani- 
mals or foreign matter and to insure free air circulation. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE SUMMER SILO. 

The summer silo is fast becoming popular and even necessary 
because of its splendid aid in supplementing summer pastures and 
tiding the herd over the period of drouth, heat and flies. Experi- 
ment stations that have studied the subject, strongly advocate its 
use and some of the leading agricultural papers have been speak- 
ing in no uncertain voice as to its advantages. 

"The summer silo is as certain to assert its value as American 
agriculture is certain to go forward rather than backward," says 
Breeder's Gazette of Chicago. "Pasture as at present used — or 
abused — is a broken reed. An over-grazed acre is the costliest 
acre that the farmer supports. Elven in normal seasons grass 
rests in the summer time, and unless a fall and winter pasture is 
laid by, little good is derived from grass lands after the flush of 
spring. The silo supplements pastures, and carries the burden of 
the winter's feeding." 

Among dairymen who have used summer silage for many years, 
permanent pastures have been greatly reduced or even entirely 
dispensed with. A prominent Indiana dairyman recently re- 
marked, "My dairy last year returned me approximately $5,000 
and yet I would go out of business if I had to give up the silo. I 
would have to reduce the herd 50 per cent, if the summer silo was 
not used." That statement is merely based on the fact that enough 
silage to keep a cow or steer during its pasture season can be 
grown on from one-fourth to one-third the area required to keep 
the sa.me animal on pasture. Beef cattlemen are rapidly finding 
out about this "greater efficiency per acre of com silage as com- 
pared with grass, and the similarity of the two feeds in their effect 
on cattle," and it leaves little room for doubt that "the silo will 
greatly reduce the pasture acreage required and will have a 
marked effect on beef production on high-priced land." 

Following the same line of thought Purdue Experiment Station 

Bulletin No. 13 says: 

Too much dependence is usually placed upon pasture for sum- 
mer feeding. Pasturing high-priced land is unprofitable in these 
times. Few stop to consider the destructive effects of trampling, 

111 



112 SUMMER SILO. 

that, while a cow is taking one bite of grass, she is perhaps soiling 
or trampling the life out of four others. If sufficient silage is put 
up each year part can well be used for summer feeding, which 
will be found less laborious than the daily hauling of green crops 
for the herd. The herd must not be allowed to shrink in flow 
unduly, as it is practically impossible to bring them back during 
the same lactation. The young stock, destined for future pro- 
ducers, must not be neglected on short pasture, for the labor and 
expense of supplying their needs as above indicated for the herd, 
is insignificant compared with the importance of their unimpaired 
growth." 

The Indiana Station states that "The most rapid and most econ- 
omical gains ever made by two-year-old cattle fed experimentally 
at this station were made by a load of 800-pound cattle fed from 
March 17 to July 15, 1910, on a ration of shelled corn, cottonseed 
meal, corn silage and clover hay. During this period the cattle 
ate an average daily feed of 14.61 pounds of corn, 2.24 pounds of 
cottonseed meal, 33.81 pounds of silage and 2.38 pounds of clover 
hay. They relished the silage as well in summer as in winter." 

There are many intelligent farmers who are providing a suc- 
cession of fresh soiling crops and using them to great advantage 
in helping out short pastures. "But," says Professor Frazer of the 
Illinois Station, "there is necessarily much labor attached to pre- 
pairing the ground, planting, raising, and harvesting the common 
crops used for this purpose. There is usually much loss in being 
obliged to feed these -crops before they are mature and after they 
are overripe. And for the farmer who can make the larger in- 
vestment, the most practical way of all to provide green feed for 
summer drouth is to fill a small silo with corn silage. It not only 
saves the labor and inconvenience in the putting in and cultivation 
of small patches of different kinds of crops, but also in harvesting 
from day to day in a busy season of the year. 

"These soiling crops can be dispensed with and all the feed 
raised from one planting in one field in the shape of corn. The 
whole field of corn for the silo may be cut at just the right stage 
of maturity when the most nutriment can be secured in the best 
possible condition of feeding. It also avoids the possibility of the 
soiling crops failing to ripen at the exact period when the drouth 
happens to strike the pasture. For the silo may be opened when- 
ever the pasture fails, regardless of the date, and the silage will 
remain in the best condition as long as needed. When the pasture 
supplies enough feed again, what is left in the silo may be covered 



SUMMER FEEDING. 113 

over and thus preserved without waste, and added to when refilling 
the silo for winter use." 

Oregon Bulletin No. 136 says that "the summer silo is growing 
in favor, and in many ways has advantages over the soiling sys- 
tem. As soiling is now practiced, a carefully planned rotation is 
necessary in order to have green feed always on hand. The acre- 
age of each crop must necessarily be small, and frequent planting 
at intervals of from ten days to two weeks must be made. If a 
large field were planted and soiling started at the proper time to 
get the maximum yield of food constituents and the greatest palat- 
ability, the greater part of the crop would soon be beyond this 
stage, as only a small part would be cut each day. By putting the 
crop into the silo all could be cut at the proper stage of maturity, 
and all at the same time. This would do away with the daily 
chore of cutting small amounts." 

The dry pastures and burned-up hillsides following the drouth 
of 1910 made a very strong impression as to the importance of 
having good summer feeding. It was an eloquent though severe 
plea for the summer silo and led to some splendid testimony in its 
favor. The drouth "cut down the milk flow in most of the herds 
nearly 50 per cent. Not one farmer in a hundred had provided 
for this emergency by a good supply of succulent food that would 
make milk. It is the same old story over again. It seems to take 
a tremendous lot of pounding on the part of Providence, to get it 
into farmers' heads that a summer silo is a grand thing," says 
Hoard's Dairyman. "Our herd of cows had 50 tons or more of 
nice corn silage to turn to when feed grew short and they have 
rolled out the milk nicely right along. Besides, they -will keep at 
it. There is nothing like a supply of silage for summer use. It is 
close by and handy to the stable for use when you want it. And 
furthermore it will produce more milk than any other kind of soil- 
ing feed." 

This is the experience of Wisconsin investigators, who find 
that silage holds milk-flow during drouth even better than soiling. 
It is rational that it should. 

During the summers of 1910, 1911 and 1912 the comparative 
value of soiling crops and silage were thoroughly tested out at the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station. In these tests corn silage com- 
peted with such soiling crops as green corn, pea.s, oats and red 



114 SUMMER SILO. 

clover. The two systems were practically on an equal footing so 
far as influence on milk production was concerned, but the cost of 
producing and feeding soiling crops was higher than that for 
silage, due to the cost of seed and the great amount of labor in- 
volved. The silage yielded more and better food from the same 
area, was more uniformly palatable and there was less waste due 
to uncontrollable weather conditions. The experiment indicated 
that in case of scant pastures, dairymen would find it a matter of 
great convenience, saving and profit to feed com silage in prefer- 
ence to soiling crops. The results of the above experiments were 
published in Wisconsin Bulletin No. 235. 

The summer drouth is with us to stay, and we might as well 
prepare to meet the situation most intelligently. As a matter of 
fact, we have never known a single season in our practical experi- 
ence to go through from end to end without a drouth, and even 
that in the best of what we might term our normal seasons. Major 
E. E. Critchfield, of Chicago, an agricultural expert, says that a 
good deal of effort has been made in various localities to carry over 
this particular season by soiling, but, he adds, we must remember 
that the man who does this is not in any sense prepared for soil- 
ing practice and it comes at a period when he is almost inoixlinate- 
ly busy with other things and is, therefore, likely to fail of best 
results. 

If, however, he has a summer silo, or a good "heel" left in his 
winter silo, he has in it a place of greatest convenience for feeding 
and it is most likely to produce the best possible results. 

Night pasturing has been found to be a very valuable practice 
in connection with the summer silo. By running the cows into 
pasture at night they are absolutely undisturbed by flies and other 
insects, and by keeping them in a darkened yet well ventilated 
barn during the day and feeding them from the silo, every advan- 
tage of the pasture and absolute freedom from its annoyances is 
secured. 

Another very valuable attribute of the summer silo is that it 
permits of saving crops in years of great plenty for other seasons 
of less plenitude. The desirability of this practice becomes evident 
when we recall how our mothers in years when fruit was very 
plentiful and cheap, used to put up a sufficient quantity to la.st 
for several years and we can hark back in our memories and tes- 



BLUEGRASS PASTURES OF SOUTH. 115 

tify as to the quality of the fruit and, therefore, the success of the 
practice. Now, since the siloing of green stock food is nothing 
more or less than a process of canning, it may be carried over 
fieveral years without any deterring influences. 

The renovation of the bluegrass pastures of Middle Tennessee 
and other Southern bluegrass communities is another wide field 
of usefulness to which the summer silo in the South may profitably 
be put. That the native bluegrass areas of this section have been 
abused is plainly evident, says a bulletin recently issued by the 
N. C. & St. Louis Railway. "Much of the pasture lands of Middle 
Tennessee which once lay in vast stretches of perfect bluegrass 
sod has been brought by continuous grazing to a comparatively 
low state of j^ielding capacity. Like all other plants, and animals, 
bluegrass has the disposition to lose vitality in the process of re- 
production, and if grazed, even lightly, during the period of propa- 
gation, serious injury is the result. Instead of reproducing itself 
through the agency of its own seed, as is popularly supposed, blue- 
grass propagates its kind chiefly at the root. With the appear- 
ance of the flrst warm sun rays of early spring, long lateral joint- 
ed rootlets are sent out from the parent root, from which spring 
little shoots which appear on the sui'face of the soil as new grass. 
If grazed during this process, the act of reproduction is arrested 
and the old plant itself permanently injured. In order to renew 
and maintain a perfect sod on the bluegrass lands of the South, 
the process of reproduction must be allowed to operate undis- 
turbed by removing all stock from the pastui^es for six weeks or 
two months early in the spring. This period of rest should extend 
from February 1 to 15 to April 1. One ton of silage per head of 
either dairy or beef stock reserved from the winter supply, or a 
small silo filled and retained for that purpose, would enable the 
Southe'rn bluegrass pasture owner to transform his meager pro- 
ducing lands into a perfect sod with but little extra expense." 

The substance of a strong editorial in Wallace's Farmer, while 
referring particularly to the lesson of the 1910 drouth, applies 
with equal force wherever pasture is used or cattle are fed. It is 
worth quoting here: 

"The question we are constantly asked is: 'Will silage keep 
through the summer?' We are glad to be able to give a direct 
answer to this, not theoretically, but from personal experience. 
We built a silo on one of the Wallace farms and filled It in 1908, 



116 SUMMER SILO. 

and made the mistake of building- it too large. During the winter 
of 1908-9 the silage was not all used. Last fall we put in new 
silage on top of the old, and during the winter used out of the new 
silage, leaving the unused remainder in the bottom. We are now 
feeding that silage, and the man in charge, an experienced dairy- 
man, tells us that after the waste on top was removed, this two- 
year-old silage is as good as any he ever used: that the cattle eat 
it as readily as anything and eat more of it than they did during 
the winter. 

"This is in entire harmony with every farmer we ever heard 
of who uses summer silage. If silage will keep two years without 
any waste except on the exposed portion of the surface, then it 
will certainly keep one. 

"Some people say: 'We may not have another summer like 
this.' To this we reply that a period of short pastures during July 
and August is the rule in all the corn belt states, and lush grass 
at this season of the year is a rare exception. Remember that 
seasons come in cycles of unknown duration, and the time of their 
coming is uncertain: that it always has been so, and it is safe to 
assume that they always will until the Creator sees fit to change 
his method of watering the earth. Therefore, well-made silage 
in a good silo is just as staple as old wheat in the mill. There 
will be a waste of several inches on the surface, just as there is 
waste of several inches on the surface of the hay stack or shock 
of corn fodder; but a man can afford that waste, if he has the 
assurance that his cows will not fail in their milk or his cattle lose 
flesh, even if there should be little or no rain for thirty or sixty 
days. When you put up a silo for summer use, you are going into 
a perfectly safe proposition, provided, of course, you build it right, 
and fill it properly." 

This editorial is 'in line with further evidence which comes 
from the Purdue Station. Prof. Skinner writes: 

"Many successful farmers with limited areas of pasture make 
a practice of filling a small silo for summer use. It has been well 
established that silage properly stored in a good silo when the 
corn or other crop is in the most desirable condition, will keep in 
good condition for several years. Many foresighted men -taking 
advantage of this fact plan to have silage on hand the year round. 
They are thus prepared for any unusual conditions such as drouth, 
scant pasture, excessively long Avinters, and it is altogether prac- 
tical and profitable. It is desirable to have a silo of relatively 
small diameter for summer feeding as it is necessary to feed con- 
siderable amount from off the top of the silage each day in order 
to keep it from 'moulding during the hot, damp weather. 

"There are three silos on the university farm and it is our aim 
to avoid having all these empty at the same time. A limited farm, 
greatly overstocked, makes it necessary to supplement the pas- 
tures every year, and while soiling crops are grown in abundance 
they cannot be relied upon because of the gravelly nature of the 



SUMMER FEEDING. 117 

sub-soil underlying the farm, which means longer or shorter 
periods of drouth annually. 

"It would be absolutely impossible to maintain the number of 
animals on the college farm that we are successfully carrying 
without the silage to supplement our pastures and soiling crops. 
Many Indiana men have come to look on the silo as quite as im- 
portant in supplementing the pastures as it is in furnishing suc- 
culence during the winter season." 

It is well to remember that less silage will naturally be fed In 
summer than in winter and that on the exposed surface molding 
is liable to set in more quickly. In order to keep the surface In 
fairly good condition, at least three inches of silage should be 
taken off daily, where two inches suffice in the winter. Where the 
size of herd permits, some farmers plan to feed off as much as five 
or six inches daily in summer. P''eeding at the rate of 50 pounds 
per head daily and removing silage to a depth of two inches from 
the surface means only about four square feet of surface needed 
for each head per day. A silo for 20 cows should therefore not 
exceed ten feet in diameter. It will be found advisable in building 
the summer silo to keep the diameter as small as is practicable. 
The higher the silo the more firmly the corn is packed and the 
better it will keep. 

Silage soon dries out or spoils in hot weather when exposed, 
but not so soon where it is finely cut and well packed, because this 
more nearly excludes the air, thus reducing the amount necessary 
to be removed daily. By having the cutting knives sharp and set to 
cut Vz -inch lengths the exclusion of air is so nearly complete that 
very little more silage needs to be removed in summer than in 
winter. If possible silage in summer should be fed in the shade 
because the hot sun acts very quickly and dries out and sometimes 
spoils the silage before the cattle eat it. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE USE OF SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

The day has passed to question the usefulness of the silo to 
the cattle feeder. Further experiments will simply emphasize its 
necessity. Millions of dollars could be added to the profits of the 
land-owners and beef-raisers of this country by heeding the teach- 
ings of the numerous experiments already made. 

Experiments at several stations during the past four or five 
years have proved beyond question the value and economy of corn 
silage in the ration for fattening steers. Silage-fed steers have re- 
peatedly made the heaviest and cheapest gains, have attained the 
highest finish during the feeding period, and have brought more 
money on the market. Numerous extensive trials have shown that 
the very best and cheapest dry rations have failed to equal a good 
silage ration, properly balanced, either in amount or cheapness of 
gains. 

Until recent years the dairy industry apparently held the mo- 
nopoly on the profitable use of this succulent feed. It is refreshing 
to note the awakening among cattle feeders to its wonderful ad- 
vantages in beef production. The "discovery" of the use and value 
of silage for beef making is, however, not new as many suppose. 
It was tested out by Prof. Thomas Shaw at the Ontario Agricul- 
tural College fully 25 years ago and the experience of many Cana- 
dian beef growers has for 20 years backed up the facts that good 
beef could be made from corn silage alone and meal, that it could 
be made more cheaply than on other feeds, and that corn stover 
was intended to be first a food and then a fertilizer, rather than 
merely a fertilizer. 

The beef producing area of the United States will be vastly 
increased by the use of the silo. Now that the Kansas Agricul- 
tural College has shown that kaflr and sorghum are fully equal to 
corn for silage, even the dry land sections of the southwest are 
put on a beef-fattening basis. This means that over one hundred 
and fifty million acres are added to the area that can profitably 
produce finished beef cattle. This is a significant fact when it is 
considered that the growing scarcity and the consequent high 
prices of beef in late years has been such as to admit of foreign 

118 



SILAGE AND THE BEEF SUPPLY. 119 

competition. "There was a time," says Breeder's Gazette, "when 
meats were produced as cheaply in the United States as any- 
where. That condition no longer exists. To produce meats in 
the United States costs more money now than to produce them in 
South America, New Zealand, or Australia. Probably meat pro- 
duction even in Great Britain is less costly than with us." 

The situation is clearly stated by H. M. Cottrell, Agricultural 
Commissioner of the Rock Island Lines, as follows: 

■'An adequate supply of beef for the United States can be 
secured only by the stockmen throughout the country adopting 
silage as the basis of their feed rations both Avhile growing cattle 
and while fattening them. The cost of making beef with grain 
and dry forage is greater than the majority of the consumers can 
pay for it and farmers find it more profitable to sell grain than to 
feed it. A careful feeding test showed that taking a steer from 
birth to three years of age when he was marketed fat, it required 
38 pounds of feed for each pound of gain. An average of a large 
number of feeding tests in many states showed that with dry 
feeds 10 pounds of grain and 5 pounds of hay were required for 
each pound of gain made while fattening beef animals. Grain is 
worth at least one cent a pound and hay is worth half a cent. Fig- 
ure for yourself the cost of making beef with dry feeds. 

"Silage saves a large proportion of grain needed in fattening 
animals. It saves the need for any grain w'hile cattle are growing. 
Silage fed cattle gain faster than those on dry feed. They finish 
quicker and the meat is better marbled. Cattle fed silage while 
fattening require 30 per cent less grain to make each 100 pounds 
of increase in weight than do cattle fed under the best methods of 
dry feeding. Silage makes 50 per cent saving of grain over ordi- 
nary methods of feeding. On high priced land, silage is of special 
advantage, as it nearly doubles the carrying capacity of the land. 

"Forty per cent of the feed value of a corn plant is in the stalk 
and 60 per cent in the ear. The stalks that grow on nearly ninety- 
five million acres of land are w^asted annually in this country and 
the feed value of the stalks on nearly eight million acres are but 
partially utilized each year. This annual waste amounts to prac- 
tically a billion dollars, the greatest economic waste in any one 
line of business in the world. Silos could convert all this wasted 
material into one of the best beef producing feeds. 

"Under the ordinary way of roughing beef cattle through the 
winter a herd averages 200 pounds less in weight per head in the 
spring than it did in the fall. It costs considerable even with these 
methods to carry stock cattle through the winter and every one 
loses in value. Stock cattle fed silage and a little dry forage will 
gain 100 pounds a head through the winter and increase in value. 
There are about 37,000,000 beef cattle in the United States. More 



120 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

than half of them are roughed through. Silage-feeding would 
make a difference of 300 pounds of edible beef everj' winter on 
each of these." 

Men at the various stock yards are now strong boosters for 
the silo and claim that it is a big factor in replenishing the cattle 
supply. During the past two or three years, the use of silage has 
become general throughout almost the entire Southwest. The re- 
sults have been that the cattle now go through the winter in ex- 
cellent condition and develop good flesh with a limited supply of 
grain, cotton seed meal and cake. Cattlemen of the Southwest 
say that the silo has solved the problem of winter feed and put 
the old range country in a position to get both the breeders' and 
the feeders' profit from cattle. During the past few years silage- 
fed cattle have topped the market repeatedly with record prices 
and it is no longer necessary to conceal their identity at the mar- 
ket to evade discrimination. Indeed the discrimination, if any, 
now leans the other way. This weighty kind of "fact -evidence" 
which affects the pocket-book, has served as a strong weapon to 
dispel the prejudice that formerly existed against silage in feed- 
ing circles. 

Before proceeding to mention a number of important feeding 
trials that have helped to bring about this condition, we wish to 
quote a short article from Farmers' Bulletin 556 of the United 
States Department of Agriculture as follows: 

"Silage stands first in rank of all the roughages for finishing 
cattle. Formerly, during the era of cheap corn and other concen- 
trates little attention was given to the roughage, as it was usually 
considered merely a 'filler' and of very little economic value in 
feeding. No especial care was taken in selecting any particular 
kind, nor was the quality of it seriously considered. As the prices 
of the concentrated feedstuffs advanced, the feeder looked about 
for methods of cheapening the cost of producing beef and soon 
found this could be accomplished by using judgment in selecting 
his roughage with respect to the grain fed. This has continued 
until at the present time the roughage receives as much attention 
as the concentrated feed, and has been made to take the place of a 
large amount of the latter. The feeding of silage came into gen- 
eral use with the advent of expensive grain and is becoming more 
pop^ilar each year. With the present prices of feedstuffs there Is 
hardly a ration used for feeding cattle which cannot be cheapened 
by the use of this succulent feed. By combining it with other 
feeds the efficiency of the ration is increased to such an extent 
that the amount of the daily gains is invariably greater and the 



EXPERIMENT STATION RESULTS. 121 

cost of producing a pound of gain is lessened. The heaviest daily 
gains are usually made during the first stage of the feeding period, 
and silage can then be used to advantage in large quantities with 
a small amount of grain, but as the feeding progresses the amount 
of silage should be lessened and the grain increased. In some 
places the price of hay and stover is so high that the greater the 
proportion of silage used in the ration the more profitable is the 
feeding. 

"Silage is a quick finishing roughage in that it produces large 
daily gains and produces a glossy coat and a soft, pliable skin. 
Moi-eover, it can be used to advantage at times for carrying cattle 
for a longer time so as to pass over a period of depression in the 
market, or to carry the cattle along in thrifty condition so they 
can be finished at a later period." 

When we consider the varied conditions under which the ex- 
periments of the Agricultural Stations and others have been 
made, it is surprising to find the results so similar and all pointing 
to the one conclusion. 

The Nebraska Station finds in Bulletin 132 that corn silage 
made larger and more profitable gains with steers than did com 
stover, used one-third less grain, and produced better finished 
steers, which were worth more per hundred. 

A summary of results at the Pennsylvania Station — Bulletin 
124 — shows that net profits during the 1912-13 cattle feeding tests, 
not including pork, ranged from $11.22 per head for steers fed 
silage and hay, to $14.09 per head for steers fed corn silage as a 
sole roughage. Com silage at $3.50 a ton proved much cheaper 
as a sole roughage than when fed with hay valued at $12.00 a ton. 
This Station realized a value of $6.20 a ton for silage when used 
for steer feeding. 

The Missouri Station found in a steer feeding experiment, 
where corn silage was compared with hay that they could make a 
saving of $1.07 per hundred pounds of beef by using silage. 

Bulletin 169 of the South Carolina Experiment Station gives 
results that are of much value to cattle feeders, not only in the 
South, but in practically all parts of the country. In this test com- 
paring silage, corn stover and cotton seed hulls, the corn silage 
gave by far the best returns, not only in feeding profits, but in 
the quality of the beef and the shape in which it reached the mar- 
ket. The silage fed group produced gains even on a poor market 
that would warrant an earning on the silage of $6.86 per ton. 



122 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

Results at the North Carolina Station given in Bulletin 222 
show that "Beef cattle fed on corn silage as the roughage portion 
of the feed in conjunction with cotton seed meal will not only use 
the meal more economically during a continuous feeding period, 
but they will finish in better condition and command a higher 
price than cattle fed on dry roughage. In all of the lots where 
corn silage was fed as a whole or a part of the roughage, the daily 
gains were more uniform throughout the feeding period than the 
gains made by the lot fed cotton-seed hulls." 

Prof. H. P. Rusk of the Illinois Experiment Station, says that 
"one of the most common mistakes in the use of silage is attempt- 
ing to make it take the place of part or all of the concentrates in 
the ration. 

"Corn silage is a roughage and not a concentrate. Its profit- 
able utilization in the finishing ration depends not so much upon 
its nutritive value as on its cheapness, its palatability and succu- 
lent nature, the steer's ability to consume large quantities of it, 
and the possibility of utilizing the entire corn plant, a large por- 
tion of which would otherwise be wasted. 

"Used in its proper combination with other feeds, corn silage 
is one of the most economical roughages available in the corn belt. 
However, it should be remembered that corn silage, like corn it- 
self, is low in protein and must be fed in combination with some 
highly nitrogenous feed in order to offset this deficiency. This 
fact was demonstrated in the early studies made on silage at the 
Purdue experiment station when a ration of shelled corn, clover 
hay and corn silage was fed in comparison with a similar ration 
to which cotton seed meal was added in sufficient quantities to 
balance the nutrients. The lot receiving cotton-seed meal made an 
average daily gain of 2.7 pounds during the 150-day feeding period 
while the lot that did not receive cottonseed meal made an average 
daily gain of only 1.8 pounds. The cost of gains was $9.11 per cwt., 
where cottonseed meal was fed as compared to $11.07 per cwt. In 
the lot to which it was not fed. A noteworthy fact shown in the 
i-esults of this experiment is that the addition of 2.6 pounds of 
cottonseed meal to the daily ration did not decrease the steer's 
capacity for other feeds. In fact, the steers receiving the balanced 
ration consumed a little over four pounds of feed more per head 
daily than those not receiving cottonseed meal. This effect is one 
that is commonly noted when rations lacking in protein are bal- 
anced -with some highly nitrogenous concentrate, or even w^hen 
the common non-leguminous roughages in such rations are re- 
placed by clover or alfalfa hay. 

"Where liberal allowances of corn silage are used, a leguminous 
roughage such as clover hay or alfalfa hay cannot be relied upon 
to furnish sufficient protein. The only way to properly balance 
such a ration is to add some nitrogenous concentrate such as cot- 



INDIANA STATION RESULTS. 123 

tonseed meal or linseed oil meal. This fact is demonstrated by the 
results of a feeding trial conducted at the Illinois experiment sta- 
tion during the winter of 1910-1911. In this experiment each of 
three lots of two-year-old steers received a full feed of broken 
ear corn and corn silage; in addition one lot was fed all the alfalfa 
hay it would clean up, another lot clover hay, and third lot was 
fed enough cottonseed meal to balance the ration. The lot re- 
ceiving corn, alfalfa hay and silage made an average daily gain 
of 2.55 pounds; the lot fed corn, clover hay and silage made an 
average daily gain of 2.09 pounds; while the lot receiving cotton- 
seed meal in the place of a leguminous roughage made a gain of 
2.59 pounds per head daily and returned a larger profit than either 
of the other lots. 

"Aside from failure to properly balance the ration, probably 
the most common mistake in feeding silage to fattening cattle 
is the practice of beginning with a small amount of silage and 
gradually increasing as the feeding period advances. This is just 
the reverse of the method that should be followed." 

At the Indiana Station, the 175 day feeding trials conducted 
from Nov. 20, 1913 to May 14, 1914, rendered strong evidence in 
favor of feeding corn silage and cheap roughage. Seven lots of 
10 grade Shorthorns each, were fed various combinations of 
shelled corn, soybean meal, cottonseed meal, oat straw, clover and 
alfalfa hay — with and without silage. The test showed little dif- 
ference in the feeding value of soybean meal and cottonseed meal, 
either in finish or profits. 

The most profitable lot of steers received shelled corn, cotton- 
seed meal, silage and oat straw. Including pork, the profit per 
steer was $12.94; without pork, $4.94. This lot not only made the 
most profit, but also made the fastest gains, the average daily gain 
per steer being 2.54 pounds for the six months. 

Excluding pork, three lots lost money. Two of these, Lots 2 
and 3, did not receive silage. The other lot received silage, but 
the cost of gains was greatly increased by the consumption of 
about $54.00 worth of alfalfa hay. 

This experiment confirmed previous findings at both the In- 
diana and Illinois Stations regarding the economy of silage, and 
the profitable use of oat straw or other cheap roughage, when 
fed in connection with corn, cottonseed meal and silage, instead 
of such costly roughages as alfalfa or clover hay. The oat straw 
was found to give as good results as clover hay. 

For several years the silage-fed cattle at the Indiana Station 



124 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

have finished out better than those not receiving silage. This 
again held true in this test. The only difference in the rations of 
Lots 2 and 4 was the addition of silage to the latter. Lot 4 not 
only finished better and sold for 10 cents per cwt. more, but in- 
cluding pork, made $4.22 more profit per head than the steers that 
had no silage. Not including pork, the profit per head was $7.58 
in favor of silage. 

Two experiments in feeding corn silage to steers were con- 
ducted at the South Dakota Experiment Station at Brookings in 
1912, running three and four months respectively. The results 
showed that neither corn fodder from the field, nor fodder silage, 
nor a one-half ration of silage and hay proved as valuable for 
wintering steers as first class corn silage (fodders cut from same 
field, at same time as corn for silage), as it required more pounds 
of dry matter for a pound of gain with these than with silage lot. 

Hay with silage proved to be better than hay or silage alone 
as a roughage. No bad results were received by feeding steers 
all the corn silage they would eat without other grain or rough- 
age. At the end of the experiment they were consuming an aver- 
age of 70 pounds per head daily. 

Further tests were conducted at the same station for 146 days 
in 1912-15 to determine the relative feeding value of oil meal, cot- 
tonseed meal and dried distilled grains when fed with corn silage 
as the sole roughage. The largest and most uniform gains were 
made with oil meal and silage. The cost of producing 100 pounds 
of gain in these tests was as follows: With corn silage and oil 
meal, $5.86; with corn silage and cottonseed meal, $6.64; with 
com silage and dried distilled grains, $5.50; with corn silage and 
oats, $6.68; with corn silage and shelled com, $8.22. It will be 
seen that the distilled grains ration made a cheaper gain than the 
oil meal ration, but the cheap gain is not always the best gain 
as the steers receiving oil meal were in better condition than the 
other lot. The average gains per head daily for the 146 days were 
2.45 for oil meal and 2.17 for distilled grains. Silage was valued 
at $4.00 a ton; oil meal and cottonseed meal at $32.00 a ton, dried 
distilled grains at $24.00 a ton, oats and shelled corn at 1 cent a 
pound. Prof. Wilson, who conducted the test, says that the ex- 
periment calls attention "to the value of corn silage when prop- 
erly supplemented with high protein feed. I believe when we feed 
our corn crop in the form of silage, we will be able to make beef 
at a profit under almost any conditions likely to present them- 
selves. The old custom of stocking cattle through the winter will 
soon be a practice of the past." 

Supt. T. J. Harrison, of the Experimental Farm, Indian Head, 
Saskatchewan, writes: "Last season (1915) we conducted feed- 
ing experiments in which ensilage was fed in comparison with 



KANSAS STATION RESULTS. 125 

mixed hay. The steers fed on the ensilage made a gain of 2.5 
pounds a day, while the lot fed mixed hay gained about 1.9. The 
silage-fed steers when sold also brought about 15 cents per cwt. 
more than the hay-fed steers, because of the fact that they were 
better finished." 

The Kansas Experiment Station in May, 1913, concluded the 
most important feeding demonstrations that have been made for 
some years, in order to determine the comparative feeding value 
of silage made from corn, kafir and cane or sweet sorghum. The 
trials were made with both beef and dairy cattle and showed with 
both that, pound for pound, the silage from all three crops had 
practically the same feeding value. These demonstrations not 
only benefit Kansas, but indicate that feeders may make kafir and 
cane silage the foundation feeds for fattening beef cattle through- 
out the entire Southwest. 

The test with beef cattle was made with Hereford calves, ten 
in each lot. Below is the record: 

Corn Kafir Sorghum 

Silage. Silage. Silage. 

Ration — Lot 1 Lot 2 Lot 5 

Original value $ 7.80 $ 7.80 $ 7.80 

Value of the lot 325.40 321.65 333.90 

Original weight 4,172 lbs. 4,124 lbs. 4,281 lbs. 

Feed Consumed: 

Corn silage 27,431 lbs 

Kafir silage 50,865 lbs 

Sweet sorghum silage 30,^55 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal 927 lbs. 927 lbs. 927 lbs. 

Details: 

Final weight 5,700 lbs. 5,751 lbs. 5,865 lbs. 

Total gain 1,528 lbs. 1,627 lbs. 1,584 lbs. 

Average daily gain 1^/2 lbs. 1.62 lbs. 1.58 lbs. 

Cost of feed $ 55.05 $ 54.96 $ 54.94 

Daily cost by head 0.055 0.0549 0.0549 

Cost of gain 3.60 3.37 3.46 

Value, hundredweight 7.50 7.60 7.50 

Final value by lot 427.50 437.07 439.87 

Profit by the lot 47.05 60.46 51.03 

It will be seen that kafir silage made 28 per cent more profit 
than corn silage, and sweet sorghum silage made 8 per cent more 
than corn silage. Corn silage has usually produced better gains 
than either kafir or sorghum silage, due to the acidity and lack of 



126 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

feeding value heretofore connected with the latter. The Kansas 
tests showed plainly that these drawbacks have been due to the 
cutting of the kafir and sorghum when too immature. These crops 
for the above feeding tests were cut three weeks later than corn. 
The seeds were practically mature, but the stalks were green and 
filled with sap. Professors Reed and Fitch report that at all times 
during the test, the silage from cane contained less acid than the 
silage from corn. 

In the dairy test, which also covered two years, it was found 
that corn silage as a milk producer was only slightly superior to 
kafir silage with cane silage a close third. Cows gave daily per 
head one-sixth of a pound more milk on corn silage than on 
kafir silage and gained slightly more in weight on the kafir silage. 
Corn silage produced an average daily yield of one-half pound per 
cow more than cane silage. These differences are so small that 
they show the feeds to be practically equal. The choice of crop to 
plant depends upon the probable yield per acre. Kafir and cane 
being drouth-resistant crops can be grown over a wider territory 
than corn and they produce from one-third to one-half more ton- 
nage to the acre, so that each acre of kafir or cane would yield 
considerably more milk than an acre of corn silage. The cane 
silage was found superior to either kafir or corn silage for gain 
in live weight, due to more carbo-hydrates and sugar, or fattening 
nutrients. All the silage was of good quality and the cows ate it 
with relish. The cane silage seemed most palatable. Cement and 
stave silos were used with no difference in results as to quality. 

Prof. O. E. Reed, who made the dairy tests, says that "the 
time of cutting cane and kafir for silage is all-important in 
making good silage from these crops. The crops should be prac- 
tically mature; that is the seed should be mature. At this time 
the stalk is still filled with sap and will make good silage. If 
put up too green, it will make sour silage. The crops should be 
put up before frost if possible, but it is better to let the crop stand 
until after frost than to put it up too green. After a heavy frost, 
the crop should be cut and siloed immediately. If it dries out too 
much, sufficient water should be added to cause it to pack well." 

The Iowa Experiment Station in Circular No. 6 gives the fol- 
lowing results of feeding corn silage for fattening cattle. The 
experiments were in charge of Prof. Evvard. 

"Com silage should be put into the feeding program of every 
Iowa beef producer if he wants to fatten cattle economically and 
eflSciently. That corn silage is our most profitable cattle roughage 



IOWA STATION RESULTS. 127 

has been clearly demonstrated at the Experiment Station as well 
as upon hundreds of Iowa farms. 

The addition of corn silage to the ration not only decreases very 
materially the cost of gains, but usually makes them more rapidly. 
The steers are finished more quickly and ordinarily sell for a 
higher price than where clover is used as the roughage. 

Fattening cattle of all ages utilize silage as their roughage 
ration. It is as good for the calf and yearling as for the two and 
three year old. All profit from its use. 

Silage is practically one-third to two-fifths as valuable as 
clover hay for beef pi'oduction. Silage at $3.20 a ton and clover 
hay at $7.66 a ton were equally efficient in fattening two-year-old 
steers in 1911-12 in our station tests. Ordinarily when clover is 
selling from $10 to $15 per ton, silage is worth from $3.50 to $6.00. 

That the corn grain which is put into the silo is not wasted 
our feeding records clearly show. Cattle receiving silage do not 
eat as much grain as hay fed cattle, the decrease being approxi- 
mately equal to the amount of corn found in the silage. 

For a short feed, silage is pre-eminently our most abundant 
and efficient roughage. The gains are not only more rapid than 
where clover or alfalfa is fed, but are made more cheaply. Fur- 
thermore, the selling price is markedly enhanced. Actual experi- 
ment has shown that as compared to clover in a ninety-day feed, 
silage cattle, rightly fed, will sell from ten to seventy-five cents 
higher per hundred weight. 

For a long feed silage is quite efficient, producing, as compared 
to clover, both cheaper gains and a higher quality of finish. 

Protein supplements must be fed with silage in order to make 
it an efficient fattening food. Cattle cannot be fattened econom- 
ically on corn and corn silage. It is imperative and absolutely 
essential that protein concentrates such as cottonseed meal, cold 
pressed cottonseed cake, linseed oil meal or similar feeds be fed. 

The average daily silage, hay and grain consumption of a two- 
year-old steer weighing 1,000 pounds at the start, during a five- 
month full feeding period will approximate: 

Shelled corn, 15 to 16 pounds; 

Cottonseed meal or linseed meal, 2.7 to 3.6 pounds; 

Clover or alfalfa hay, 3 to 5 pounds; 

Corn silage, 22 to 35 pounds. 

With silage as lone roughage the consumption will be about 28 
to 35 pounds. It requires practically one and three-quarters to 
two and three quarters tons of corn silage for a five months' feed 
for a two year old. 

In the absence of any dry roughage such as clover, alfalfa or 
oat straw, corn silage may be used as the lone roughage. Some 
dry corn stover should be utilized if possible. In case of lone 
silage feeding, however, one had best increase the protein concen- 
trates slightly. 



128 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

In what quantities throughout the feeding period shall we feed 
silage? Our experience clearly shows that silage should be fed 
very heavily in the .early part of the feeding period to insure most 
efficient results. The grain at this time may be somewhat lim- 
ited. We put our steers upon a full feed of good quality silage 
the very first day and have never had any difficulty. Silage is 
a roughage and may be so handled without danger. To insure 
quick and economical finishing, the silage is best decreased some- 
what at the close of the feeding period and the grain increased 
accordingly. Cattle, when nearly finished, tend to eat too much 
of the bulky, watery, palatable silage, thus leaving too little room 
for concentrated grains, a consumption of which is hfghly im- 
perative at this time. 

The shrinkage of silage fed cattle is not heavy as is ordinarily 
supposed. Silage fed cattle do not shrink any more than dry hay 
fed ones. Our results clearly indicate that cattle receiving both 
silage and dry roughage during the feeding period, shrink less 
than those fed on either dry feed or silage alone." 

The Texas Station has conducted two experiments recently in 
which the value of cotton seed meal and silage was tested for 
fattening cattle. The results of these experiments, and those ob- 
tained by other Stations and commercial feeders along the same 
lines, indicate this combination to be one of the most profitable 
rations that can be used for feeding cattle in Texas. 

The first experiment covered a period of 119 days during the 
winter of 1911-12. 40 head of range-bred three- and four-year 
old, grade Shorthorn and Hereford steers were used. The silage 
fed was about 75 per cent. Milo Maize, 15 per cent. Indian corn, 
and 10 per cent, sorghum. During the last 20 days of the test 
the percentage of Indian corn was increased. The test showed 
that a ration of cotton seed meal and silage may be used far more 
JDrofitably than a ration of cotton seed meal and cotton seed hulls 
for fattening cattle. Silage was a much cheaper feed than cotton 
seed hulls and yielded slightly larger gains. The silage fed steers 
showed considerably better finish and brought 20c a hundred- 
weight more on the market than the hulls-fed steers. The net 
profit on the silage-fed steers was $10.40 a head and the net 
profit on the hulls-fed steers was 67c a head. 

The second experiment, during the winter of 1912-13 lasted 
159 days. 28 head of well graded steers were used, divided into 
four lots. A summary of results showed that the ration of cotton 
seed meal and silage was considerably more profitable than either 
the ration of cotton seed meal and hulls or the one of cotton seed 
meal, hulls and silage. It was found that 12-3 tons of silage was 
equivalent to one ton of cotton seed hulls in feeding value. Silage 
realized a value of $8.16 a ton. Cotton seed meal at $27.00 per 
ton Avas more profitable than cotton seed at $17.00 a ton in supple- 
menting the silage to form a fattening ration. The shrinkage in 
shipment to market was much greater in the hulls-fed lots than 
in the lots fed silage as roughage. During the first 107 days of 



RESULTS IN THE SOUTH. 129 

the test the silage was about 90 per cent, sorghum and 10 per 
cent, cow-peas. During the remaining 32 days, it was composed 
of Indian corn. This test was based on the following values per 
ton: Cotton seed meal, $27.00; cotton seed hulls, $7.00; cotton 
seed, $17.00; silage, $2.50. 

At the Amarillo Sub -Station in Texas a test was made to com- 
pare cotton seed meal and grass with cotton seed meal and silage. 
The silage steers made 400% better gains. 

Mr. Henry H. Johnson uses 15 silos of 200 to 250 tons each for 
fattening annually about 4,000 steers on his 25,000 acre ranch in 
Oklahoma. Mr. Johnson says, "No farmer, large or small, can 
afford to be without a silo. It is the only way to feed cattle at 
a minimum cost. Any other way will cost a man from eight to 
ten dollars a head more. Silage increases the flow of milk at least 
half and young cattle will make faster growth on silage than on 
any other kind of feed." 

A battery of four monolithic silos — the largest in the West — 
was built in 1912, on the 14,000 acre beef ranch of Horace Adams. 
Maple Hill, Kan. Each was 20x60 feet. They hold 500 tons each 
and cost $3,300, and are to store feed for producing fine beef 
cattle. 

The South abounds in just the protein feeds that are needed 
to properly supplement silage. Cowpeas, soybeans, peas, vetch, 
red clover, lespedeza, oil meal, cotton seed meal, gluten feed, 
clover, alfalfa, wheat, bran or oats are all good. The South has 
splendid natural conditions for stock raising. Regarding the 
value of silage, Prof. Andrew M. Soule of the Georgia Agricul- 
tural College says: 

"For more than fifteen years I have either conducted person- 
ally or supervised experiments on the wintering of beef cattle 
with silage as the principal form of roughness. In that time it 
has proved to be cheapest and most efficient coarse feed avail- 
able for use in the south. Cattle fed on silage for a period of 
134 days made an average gain in the stable of 1.06 pounds, those 
fed hay and grain a gain of .27 pounds, those fed stover and grain 
.08 pounds, those fed silage and grain made a gain of 1.22 pounds. 
These cattle were allowed to run on grass for 81 days. The aver- 
age daily gain for the silage and grain cattle for both the stable 
and the grass period was 1.36 pounds, the stover and grain cattle 
1.19 pounds, the hay and grain cattle 1.13 pounds. The most 
economic gains from stable feeding were made by the silage and 
grain fed cattle. 

Under good management a grain ration as low as 2 pounds per 
day will make substantial gains in the winter and maintain good 
gains on grass. Three pounds of grain combined in the propor- 
tion of two pounds of corn and one of cottonseed meal will make 
an excellent grain ration." 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE SILAGE SYSTEI^T HELPS MAINTAIN SOIL 
FERTILITY. 

When the cattle feeders of this country once thoroughly realize 
that they can profitably feed and raise stock by means of the 
silage system the great problem of maintaining and increasing 
soil fertility will very largely solve itself and exhausted soils will 
recuperate of their own accord. 

This statement is based on certain fundamental facts, which 
Farmer's Bulletin No. 180 covers briefly as follows: 

"When subjected to proper chemical tests or processes every 
substance found on our globe no matter whether it belongs to the 
mineral, vegetable or animal kingdom may be reduced to single 
elements, of which we now know over seventy. Many of these 
elements occur but rarely, and others are present everywhere in 
abundance. United mostly in comparatively simple combinations 
of less than half a dozen each, these elements make up rocks, 
soils, crops, animals, the atmosphere, water, etc. The crops in 
their growth take some of the elements from the soil in which 
they grow and others from the air. Many elements are of no 
value to crops; a few, viz., 13 or 14, are, on the other hand, abso- 
lutely necessary to the growth of plants; if one or more of these 
essential elements are lacking or present in insufficient quantities 
in the soil, the plant cannot make a normal growth, no matter in 
what quantities the others may occur, and the yields obtained 
will be decreased as a result." 

The problem of the conservation of soil fertility is therefore 
largely one of maintaining a readily available supply of the essen- 
tial plant elements in the soil. Most of these elements occur in 
abundance in all soils, g.nd there are really only about three of 
them that the farmer need seriously consider— nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid and potash. Of these, the latter two are mineral com- 
pounds which are very often lacking in the soil in sufficient 
quantity to give profitable crops and they must therefore be sup- 
plied in the form of manures or fertilizers. The nitrogen is partly 
obtained from the air by leguminous crops, but the supply from 
this source is limited and the proper enrichment of the soil often 
demands the addition of this compound. 

130 



VALUABLE FERTILIZING ELEMENTS. 131 

Every time that a crop is grown it robs the soil of a valuable 
portion of these fertilizing elements. A ton of clover hay, for in- 
stance, contains 41.4 pounds of nitrogen, 7.6 pounds of phosphorus 
and 44 pounds of potash. These elements form the basis of the 
market value of commercial fertilizers and because of the enor- 
mous quantity of fertilizer now used they each have a definite and 
fairly stable market value. For our purposes in this discussion 
we place these values as follows: 18 cents a pound for nitrogen, 
5 cents a pound for phosphoric acid and 5 cents a pound for 
potash. It should be remembered that these values are likely to 
differ to some extent in various localities according as they are 
affected by the item of transportation. At the present time, be- 
cause of the European War, it is hard to estimate the value that 
should be placed on these elements, as the sources of most of our 
nitrogen and potash are very largely controlled by the warring 
nations, and for this reason our values will be found very con- 
servative and even very low. But taking one year with another 
and reaching over a period of years it is fair to assume that the 
prices of 18, 5 and 5 cents a pound respectively will be found ap- 
proximately correct. Now, figured on this basis, it will be found 
that each ton of clover hay takes from the soil $10.23 worth of 
fertility. A 100-bushel corn crop contains 148 pounds of nitrogen, 
23 pounds of phosphoric acid and 71 pounds of potash valued at 
$51.34. In other words, that much fertility is removed from the 
soil with every 100-bushel corn crop. In the same manner, the 
fertility in a ton of wheat has a value of $9.79; a ton of wheat 
bran, $14.06; a ton of alfalfa hay, $10.07; a ton of timothy $5.97 
and a ton of oats, $8.85. Other crops vary in proportion. 

The above figures may be startling to some who have been 
growing and selling these crops. The question may come up, do 
these figures actually mean that we can get returns of $14.06 by 
the application of one ton of wheat bran to our land as a fertilizer? 
Such is not their meaning, however. They do mean that if a 
farmer seeks to restore to the soil the same amount of fertility 
as was extracted by his 100-bushel corn crop, such fertilizer 
would cost him on the market not less than the amount stated 
above, viz.: $31.34. The same relative values obtain with the 
other crops mentioned. 

It is clear, therefore, that unless these elements are put back 
into the soil in some way, it will produce steadily declining crops 



132 



SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY. 



and eventually will become exhausted or mined out. How to put 
them back at the least expense is the problem confronting many 
sections of this country today, and it is not alone for the benefit 
of future generations; it has a vital bearing on our own crop 
yields. 

The soil is the farmer's bank and the fertility of that soil is 
his capital. Many a farmer finding it impossible to "break na- 



gfBCK. Dairy and mixed farming oeo acres) 

PRODUCED ON FARM RETURNED TO LAMP 



GRAIN AND HAY FARMING (160 ACRE& 
PRODUCED ON FARM RETURNED TO LAND 



Clover 
Alfalfa 



PLAriT FOOD - M-niTROGED - RA = PHOSPHORIC ACID- P -POTASH 



PRODUCED 



RETURnCD 



M 






r.ooo 






/t>s 




p 


1 


p. A 

ifioc 


s,soo 

i 


m 


I hi 


m 





RETURtiEJ) 



NOTHIhG 



TOTAL -IS,£00 Ibi TOTAL- 16,50011.5. 



T'^TAL- 13.500 lbs 



Fig. 50. — Comparison of years' results of grain and hay farming 
vs. stock, dairy and mixed farming. — Courtesy Family Herald 
and Weekly Star, Montreal. 



ture's bank" has practiced farming methods that have meant 
a continual draining, year after year, of his capital — fertility — 
failing the while to understand the constantly smaller yields of 
the particular crops grown. This is the usual result of exclu- 
sive grain and hay farming and is graphically shown in the ac- 
companying chart, Fig. 50. The chart also illustrates the results 
of stock, dairy and mixed farming, where most of the crops are 
grown for stock and manufactured into finished prwlijcts such as 
milk, cheese and beef, and where the fertility is returned to the 



EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS CROPPING. 133 

land by means of manure and the legumes. It will be observed 
that where this latter system is practiced the nitrogen in the 
soil is actually increased, whereas the phosphoric acid and potash 
are reduced to a very small extent. 

The startling effect of continuous crop farming is shown by 
an experiment covering 50 years at the Illinois Experiment Sta- 
tion: 

"At this station the yield on a typical prairie soil has de-. 
creased under continuous corn raising from 70 bushels to the 
acre to 27 bushels to the acre during this period, while under a 
system of crop • rotation and proper fertilization the yield on a 
portion of the same field has been increased during the same 
period to 96 bushels per acre. These yields are not of a certain 
year, but averages of three-year periods. The 96 bushels was 
obtained in a three-year rotation in which corn was followed by 
oats in which clover was sown. The next year clover alone, 
followed by corn again. Stable manure with commercial fertil- 
izers was applied to the clover ground to be plowed under for 
corn. The difference in the yields obtained between the rotation 
system where fertility was applied and the straight corn cropping 
without fertility was 69 bushels per acre, or over two-and-a-half 
times that of the system of continuous corn raising. A large 
proportion of this difference in yield is clear profit, as the actual 
expense of producing the 96 bushels to the acre was but little 
more than in growing the 27. If the results of these two yields 
were figured down to a nicety, and the value of the land de- 
termined by the net income, it would be found that the well 
farmed acres would be worth an enormous price as compared 
with a gift of the land that produced the smaller yield." 

Henry says that "with sharp competition confronting every 
one who cultivates the soil, the careful saving of farm manures 
and their judicious application are vital factors in farming oper- 
ations, and as essential to continued success as plowing the land 
or planting the crop. * * * When one must choose between com- 
mercial fertilizers and barn-yard manures, it is reasonable to 
estimate that the latter have a value of at least two-thirds the 
former, based on their nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash con- 
tents." These manures benefit the soil because the vegetable 
matter they contain acts as a mulch and forms humus, but so far 



134 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY. 

as feeding the plants is concerned their worth rests upon the 
elements of fertility they contain. 

It will, therefore, be seen that barn-yard manure has a high 
value as a fertilizei". It is perhaps the most important for soil 
improvement. The reason for this is that it supplies nitrogen, 
phosphorus and potash and the decaying organic matter needed. 
In feeding oats, corn, wheat or other crops to animals, it is well 
to know that about three-quarters of the phosphorus and nitrogen 
and practically all of the potash go thi'ough the body and are re- 
turned in the solid and liquid manure. It is evident that the value 
of richness of the manure depends largely on the crops or part 
of the crops fed to the animals. That which originates from the 
use of concentrated feeding stuffs usually has a high value. That 
which comes from the use of straw or other coarse forage has a 
lower value. Leguminous crops are rich in nitrogen and phos- 
phorus. Three tons of white clover will contain 8 pounds more 
phosphoric acid and 17 pounds more nitrogen than a 100 bushel 
corn crop, i. e., 31 pounds phosphoric acid and 165 pounds nitro- 
gen. Any system of farming where grain is sold and only stalks 
and straw retained for feed produces manure weak in both nitro- 
gen and phosphorus. These elements are divided in the com 
plant on the 100-bushel basis, about as follows: 

100 lbs. nitrogen in grain and 48 lbs. in the stalk. j 

17 lbs. phosphorus in grain and 6 lbs. in the stalk. 
19 lbs. potassium in grain and 52 lbs. in the stalk. 

In other words, two-thirds of the nitrogen, three-fourths of the 
phosphorus and one-fourth of the potassium are in the grain or 
seed and one-third of the nitrogen, one-fourth of the phosphorus 
and three-fourths of the potassium are in the stalk or straw. In 
siloing the corn plant the full value of the fertilizer, in both stalk 
and grain, is obtained in the manure. 

The value of manure depends very largely on the way in which 
it is handled. Over half the value is in the liquid portion. 

Experiments were conducted at the Ohio Experiment Station 
with two lots of steers for six months to ascertain the IdSs 
through seepage. An earth floor was used for one lot and a 
cement floor for the other lot. Manure was weighed and analyzed 
at the beginning and end of the experiments and it was found that 
that produced on the earth floor had lost enough fertilizer through 



NITROGEN A VALUABLE ELEMENT. 135 

seepage during the experiments to have paid half the cost of 
cementing the floor. 

Losses through weathering and leaching are also common and 
should be avoided. Experiments at the same station, during 12 
years show that fresh manure produced increase in crop yields 
over yard manure amounting to about one-fourth of the total 
value of the manure. 

Roberts, compiling data from various sources, gives the value 
of manure produced under average conditions by a horse as 
$24.06 a year and that of a cow as $32.25 a year, or $2.49 and 
$2.43 a ton respectively. This value is sui'ely high enough to 
justify reasonable protection and care. 

Nitrogen is manure's most valuable element measured by the 
cost of replacing it in commercial fertilizer. It heats when lying 
in heaps and the strong ammonia odor, due to the combination of 
the nitrogen in the manure and the hydrogen of the moisture of 
the heap, indicates that in time all the nitrogen will escape in the 
form of ammonia gas. It is said that a ton of manure contains 
about 10 .pounds of nitrogen, worth $1.50 or $2.00, so that this 
loss of nitrogen is a serious one. 

An average dairy cow of 1,000 pounds weight, properly fed, 
will throw off $15.00 worth of nitrogen and potash a year in her 
urine. A horse will throw off $18.00 worth. Urine has a greater 
fertilizing value than manure, and together they become ideal. 

Every farmer can have his own manure factory by keeping 
live stock. Naturally, the more live stock the farm can keep, the 
more manure he will have for returning to the soil. 

The silo here comes in as a material aid, and with its adop- 
tion it Is possible to keep at least twice as much live stock on a 
given area of land. Pasturing cattle is becoming too expensive 
a method. High priced lands can be used to better advantage 
by growing the feeding crop and siloing it, without any waste, to 
be preserved and fed fresh and green the year around. This 
method, as we have said, will insure the maximum supply of 
splendid fertilizing material. 

But the silo does more — it converts the farm into a factory 
as it were — i. e., it will become a creator of a finished or more 
nearly finished product instead of being the producer of a mere 



136 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY. 

raw material. The effect will be to raise proportionately the price 
of every commodity offered for sale. 

"On the ordinary farm which markets cereal crops only a 
part is ever sufficiently fertile to return a profit. The other 
acres must be put by to regain fertility and are so much dead 
capital while they are made ready for a further effort. Not so 
with a farm devoted to beef as the market crop. Every acre of 
it may be seen producing year after year in an increasing ratio, 
and occasional crops such as potatoes — which while they need a 
rich soil for their development yet draw but lightly on fertility 
and are very useful as cleaning crops — will yield bumper profits 
in cash." 

This statement applies with full force to what is another very 
desirable attribute of the silo and the silage system— that it will 
so increase the live stock of the farm that many of the products 
heretofore sold in a raw state, and which contain, and therefore 
carry away most of the fertility of the farm, may now be fed at 
home. 

A few examples will best serve to illustrate this statement': 

The fertilizing constituents in a ton of clover hay, as above 
stated, amount nominally to $10.25. This would mean then that 
every time the farmer sells a ton of clover hay, he sells $10.23 
worth of fertility. So much fertility has gone from the farm for- 
ever. It would most certainly be wise to feed the clover at home 
as a balance to the silage ration, thereby keeping the fertility on 
the farm, and making at the same time some finished product, as 
cream, milk, butter, cheese or beef, the sale of which will not 
carry away from the farm any great amount of fertility. 

The sale of a ton of butter, which is perhaps the best example 
of a finished or manufactured product from the farm, contains 
but 27 cents' worth of fertility. Why then is it not the part of 
wisdom to feed the clover hay, which contains as above noted, 
$10.23 in fertility; alfalfa hay, $10.07; timothy hay, $5.97; corn, 
$31.34; and oats $8.85 and convert the whole into a finished 
product — as butter, which when sold takes away with it but 27 
cents in fertility for each ton? Or if more desirable, why not 
convert these crops into beef, every 100 pounds of which when 
shipped from the farm carries away fertility to the extent of only 
51 cents? 



FERTILITY IN THE SOUTH. 137 

Restoring Fertility in the South. 

In the Southern states the productive capacity of the farm 
lands has been materially reduce^d because of the continued drain 
upon their native fertility without adequate replacement. This 
loss is recognized by practically all agricultural observers. A 
parallel fact is that up to 1900 the production of live stock in the 
south also showed a steady decrease. Statistics from the Federal 
census show that with the opening up of the great cattle ranges 
of the West and the consequent cheap beef, the southern pro- 
ducer could not compete on his relatively high priced land. Dur- 
ing the 50 years preceding 1900, Texas cattle for instance in- 
creased from 350,114 to 7,279,935 while Tennessee cattle decreased 
in the same period from 750,762 to 676,183. Since 1900, the great 
Texas ranges have been largely broken up and occupied by a 
farming population with the result that in 1910 the Texas carttle 
supply showed a 15% decrease since 1900, whereas the Tennes- 
see cattle showed a 23% increase. This condition obtained gen- 
erally in the South as compared with the West. 

Now because the Southern producer could not compete with 
the Western ranges, he was forced into the growing of cotton, 
grain, hay and such other crops as he could readily dispose of on 
the market at the greatest profit — a system that naturally re- 
sulted in taking from the soil a great deal of fertility and putting 
little or nothing back into the soil in return. The fact that the 
future beef supply of this nation must come from the general 
farm, introduces "the most potent reasons why the Southern 
farmer should make immediate preparation to engage more ex- 
tensively in the production of beef to meet the strong demand 
that is now being made and that will continue to be made upon 
the farms of the country. The silo is the logical source of cheap 
food supply on the high priced lands of the South, and is quali- 
fied as well to meet the crippled feeding situation, occasioned in 
many communities by careless methods of cultivation, and on 
such lands of poorer quality as will not justify the application of 
sufficient fertilizers to produce paying crops. The silo increases 
the stock carrying capacity of the pasture, and with its common 
adoption and use by the farmers of the South will come more live 
stock on the Southern farm, and in that respect no modern 
farm institution promises to become a more important and help- 



138 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY. 

ful factor in building up the soils of the agi'icultural communi- 
ties of this vast region." 

In summing up the foregoing chapter therefore, it will be gen- 
erally conceded that the cheapest and most effective method of 
building up the soil and maintaining it in a good state of fertility 
is to follow a good rotation, grow plenty of legumes and apply 
the barnyard manure to the land. Their value in building up 
the soil is one of the strongest reasons for keeping live stock. 
The grain and roughage is fed on the farm and the stock give 
it back to the land in fertilizer. The farmer who hauls his 
grain and hay to market must obtain fertilizer from some other 
source and this is often costly. Now, if the keeping of live stock 
is a good thing for the farm, any system that permits double or 
triple the number of live stock to be kept on the same acreage 
is naturally much better. THE SILAGE SYSTEM DOES JUST 

thAt. 



CHAPTER VII. 

SILAGE CROPS. 

Indian Corn. — Indian Corn is, as has already been stated, the 
main silage crop in this country, and is likely to always remain so. 
Before explaining the filling of the silo and the making of silage, 
it will be well, therefore, to state briefly the main conditions which 
govern the production of a large crop of corn for the silo, and to 
examine which varieties of corn are best adapted for silage 
making. 

Soils best adapted to corn culture and preparation of land. — 
The soils best adapted to the culture of Indian com are well- 
drained medium soils, loams or sandy loams, in a good state of 
fertility. Com will give best results coming after clover. The 
preparation of the land for growing corn is the same whether ear 
corn or forage is the object. Fall plowing is practiced by many 
successful corn growers. The seed is planted on carefully prepared 
ground at such a time as convenient and advisable. Other things 
being equal, the earlier the planting the better, after the danger of 
frost is ordinarily over. "The early crop may fail, but the late 
crop is almost sure to fail." After planting, the soil should be kept 
pulverized and thoroughly cultivated. Shallow cultivation will 
ordinarily give better results than deep cultivation, as the former 
method suffices to destroy the weeds and to preserve the soil 
moisture, which are the essential points sought in cultivating crops. 
The cultivation should be no more frequent than is necessary for 
the complete eradication of weeds. It has been found that the yield 
of corn may be decreased by too frequent, as well as by insufficient 
cultivation. The general rule may be given to cultivate as often, 
but no oftener, than is necesary to kill the weeds, or keep the 
soil pulverized. 

The cultivator may be started to advantage as soon as the 
young plants break through the surface, and the soil kept stirred 
and weeds destroyed, until cultivation is no longer practicable. 

Varieties of corn for the silo. — The best corn for the silo, in any 
locality, is that variety which will be reasonably sure to mature 
before frost, and which produces a large amount of foliage and 

139 



140 SILAGE CROPS. 

ears. The best varieties for the New England States are the 
Learning, Sanford, and Flint corn; for the Middle States, Learning, 
White and Yellow Dent; in the Central and Western States, the 
Learning, Sanford, Flint and White Dent wil be apt to give the best 
results, while in the South, the Southern Horse Tooth, Mosby 
Prolific and other large dent corns are preferred. 

For Canada, Rennie gives, as the varieties best adapted for 
the silo: for Northern Ontario, North Dakota and Compton's Early 
Flint; for Central Ontario, larger and heavier yielding varieties 
may be grown, viz., Mammoth Cuban and Wisconsin Earliest White 
Dent. It is useless to grow a variety for silage which will not be 
in a firm dough state by the time the first frosts are likely to 
appear. 

Conditions from coast to coast are so varied that it is impossible 
to assign particular varieties as best adapted to certain localities. 
Specific information on this point can be obtained from the 
Agricultural Experiment Station of practically every state or 
province in the United States and Canada. 

In the early stages of siloing com in this country, the effort 
was to obtain an Immense yield of fodder per acre, no matter 
whether the corn ripened or not. Large yields were doubtless 
often obtained with these big varieties, although it is uncertain 
that the actual yields ever came up to the claims made. Bailey's 
Mammoth Ensilage Corn, "if planted upon good corn land, in good 
condition, well matured, with proper cultivation," was guaranteed 
to produce from forty to seventy-five tons of green fodder to the 
acre, "just right for ensilage." We now know that the immense 
Southern varieties of corn, when grown to an immature stage, as 
must necessarily be the case in Northern States, may contain 
less than ten per cent, of dry matter, the rest (more than nine- 
tenths of the total weight) being made up of water. This is cer- 
tainly a remarkable fact, when we remember that skim milk, even 
when obtained by the separator process will contain nearly ten per 
cent, of solid matter. 

In speaking of corn intended to be cut for forage at an imma- 
ture stage, Prof. Robertson, of Canada, said at a Wisconsin 
Farmers' Institute, "Fodder corn sowed broadcast, does not meet 
the needs of milking cows. Such a fodder is mainly a device of a 
thoughtless farmer to fool his cows into believing that they have 



YIELDS OF SOUTHERN AND MAINE CORN. 



141 



been fed, when they have only been filled up." The same applies 
with equal strength to the use of large, immature Southern 
varieties of fodder, or for the silo, in Northern States. 

In comparative variety tests with com in the North, Southern 
varieties have usually been found to furnish larger quantities per 
acre of both green fodder and total dry matter in the fodder than 
the smaller Northern varieties. As an average of seven culture 
trials, Professor Jordan thus obtained the following results at the 
Maine Station. 



Table IX. — Comparative Yields of Southern Corn and Maine Field 
Corn Grown in Maine, 1888-1893. 





SOUTHERN CORN. 


MAINE FIELD CORN. 




Green 
Fodder. 


l>ry 
Substance. 


Digestible 
Matter. 


Green 
Fodder. 


Dry 
Substance. 


Digestible 

Matter. 




Per 

Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 
Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 
Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 
Ceut. 


Lbs. 


Maximum.. 
Minimum. . 
Average 


46,340 
26.295 
34,761 


16.58 
12.30 
14.50 


6,237 
3,234 
5,036 


69 

61 
65 


3,923 
2,102 
3,251 


29.400 
14,212 
22,269 


25.43 
13.55 
18.75 


7,064 
2,415 
4,224 


78 
70 
72 


4,945 
1,715 
3,076 



The average percentage digestibility of the dry substance is 
65 per cent, for the Southern corn, and 72 per cent, for the Maine 
field corn, all the results obtained for the former varieties being 
lower than those obtained for the latter. While the general result 
for the five years, so far as the yield of digestible matter is con- 
cerned, is slightly in favor of the Southern varieties, the fact 
should not be lost sight of that an average of G^A tons more of 
material has annually to be handled over several times, in case of 
these varieties of corn, in order to gain 175 pounds more of diges- 
tible matter per acre; we therefore conclude that the smaller, less 
watery, variety of corn really proved the more profitable. 

At other Northern stations similar results, or results more 
favorable to the Northern varieties, have been obtained, showing 
that the modern practice of growing only such corn for the silo as 
will mature in the particular locality of each farmer, is borne 
out by the results of careful culture tests. 



142 



SILAGE CROPS. 



Time of cutting corn for the silo. — In order to determine at 
what stage of growth corn had better be cut when intended for the 
silo, it is necessary to ascertain the amount of food materials 
which the corn plant contains at the different stages, and the 
proportion of different ingredients at each stage. From careful 
and exhaustive studies of the changes occurring in the composition 
of the corn plant, which have been conducted both in this country 
and abroad, we know that as corn approaches maturity the nitro- 
genous or flesh-forming substances decrease in proportion to the 
other components, while the non-nitrogenous components, especi- 
ally starch (see Glossary), increase very markedly; this increase 
continues until the crop is nearly mature, so long as the leaves 
are still green. Several experiment stations have made investi- 
gations in regard to this point. As an illustration we give in 
Table X data obtained by Prof. Ladd, in an investigation in which 
fodder corn was cut and analyzed at Ave different stages of 
growth, from full tasseling to maturity. 



Table X. — Cliemical Changes in the Corn Crop. 



YIELD PER ACRE 


Tas- 
seled, 
July 30 


Silked, 
Aug. 9 


Milk. 
Aug. 21 


Glazed. 

Sept. 7 


Ripe. 
Sept. 23 




Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 



Gross Weight 

Water in the Crop. . . . 

Dry Matter 

Ash 

Crude Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen-free Extract 
(starch, sugar, etc.) 
Crude Fat 



18045 125745 
16426 122666 
2619 I 3078 
138.91 201.3 
239.81 436.8 
514.21 872.9 

I 
653.91 1399.5: 
72.21 167.8 



32600 132295 
27957 125093 
4643 I 7202 
232.21 302.5 
478.71 645.9 
1262.01 2755.9 

2441.31 3239.8 
228.91 260.0 



28460 
20542 
7918 
364.2 
677.8 
1734.0 

4827.6 
314.3 



The data given above show how rapidly the yield of food 
materials increases with the advancing age of the corn, and also 
that increase during the later stages of growth comes largely on 
the nitrogen-fed extract (starch, sugar, etc.). 



TABLE OF CHEMICAL CHANGES. 



143 




i«riE: 6i2E TflSiELtO OUT fli WM£N RiPE. 
BUT note; oir/'-ERcrvcc i/n food kaluc 
/=..«• s-.NDni. flit CoUtye 



This difference in food 
value from the time the corn 
is tasseled out until it is ripe 
is illustrated in the accom- 
panying chart, Fig. 51, by 
Prof. Palmer of the North 
Dakota Agricultural College. 

The results as to this point 
obtained at several experi- 
ment stations have been sum- 
marized and are given in the 
Table XI, showing the in- 
crease in food ingredients 
during the stages previous to 
maturity. 



Fig. 51. 

Table XI. — Increase in Food Ingredients from Tasseling to 
Maturity. 





Variety 


Stage of Maturity 


Gain in percent. 

between first 
and last cutting 


EXPERIMENT 
STATION 


First Cutting 


Last Cutting 




■Si 


1^ 


ox 


Cornell, N. Y.... 
Cornell, N. Y.... 
Geneva, N. Y — 
New Hampshire. 

Pennsylvania 

Vermont 


Pride of the North 
Pride of the North 

King Philip 

Av. of 4 varieties. 
Av. of 10 varieties. 
Av. of 2 varieties. 
Av. of 2 varieties. 


Bloom 

Bloom 

Tasseled 

Tasseled 

Tasseled 

Tasseled 

Bloom 


Mature 

Nearly mature 

Mature 

Glazed 

Mature 

Glazed 

Glazed 


150 
217 
389 
112 
155 
122 
204 


90 
iM 
183 

50 


129 

374 
335 
84 


169 
300 
462 
130 


50 
81 
















Average of all t 


'ials 


193 


98 


230 


?6S 







We thus find that the largest amount of food materials in the 
corn crop is not obtained until the corn is well ripened. When a 
corn plant has reached its total growth in height it has, as shown 
by results given in the last table, attained only one-third to one- 
half of the weight of dry matter it will gain if left to maturity; 
hence we see the wisdom of postponing cutting the corn for the 
silo, as in general for forage purposes until rather late in the 
season, when it can be done without danger of frost. 



144 SILAGE CROPS. 

The table given in the preceding, and our discussion so far, 
have taken into account only the total, and not the digestible 
components of the corn. 

It has been found through careful digestion trials that older 
plants are somewhat less digestible than young plants. There is, 
however, no such difference in the digestibility of the total dry 
matter or its components as is found in the total quantities ob- 
tained from plants at the different stages of growth, and the total 
yields of digestible matter in the corn will therefore be greater 
at maturity, or directly before this time, than at any earlier stage 
of growth. Hence we find that the general practice of cutting corn 
for the silo at the time when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage, 
when the kernels have become rather firm, and are dented or be- 
ginning to glaze, is good science and in accord with our best 
knowledge on the subject. 

Other reasons why cutting at a late period of grow^th is prefer- 
able in siloing com are found in the fact that the quality of the 
silage made from such corn is much better than that obtained 
from green immature corn, and in the fact that the sugar is most 
abundant in the corn plant in the early stages of ear development, 
but the loss of non-nitrogenous components in the silo falls first 
of all on the sugar, hence it is the best policy to postpone cutting 
until the grain is full-sized and the sugar has largely been changed 
to starch. 

It does not do, however, as related under Uniformity in the 
first chapter to delay the cutting so long that the corn plant be- 
comes too dry, for the reason stated. • Silage does not spoil when 
too wet, but will mold if too dry. Experience will be the best 
guide, but the foregoing pages should enable the reader to form the 
right idea as to time for filling, which to secure the best results 
is nearly as important as to have material with which to fill the 
silo. 

Methods of Planting Corn. — When the com crop is intended for 
the silo, it should be planted somewhat closer than is ordinarily 
the case when the production of a large crop of ear corn is the 
primary object sought. Thin seeding favors the development of 
well-developed, strong plants, but not the production of a large 
amount of green forage. The number of plants which can be 
brought to perfect development on a certain piece of land depends 



METHOD OF PLANTING CORN. 145 

upon the state of fertility of the land, the character of the season, 
especially whether it is a wet or dry season, as well as other fac- 
tors, hence no absolute rule can be given as to the best thickness 
of planting corn for the silo. Numerous experiments conducted in 
different parts of the country have shown, however, that the 
largest quantities of green fodder per acre can ordinarily be ob- 
tained by planting the corn in hills three or even two feet apart, 
or in drills three or four feet apart, with plants six or eight inches 
apart in the row. 

It makes little if any difference, so far as the yield obtained is 
concerned, whether the corn is planted in hills or in drills, when 
the land is kept free from weeds in both cases, but it facilitates 
the cutting considerably to plant the corn in drills if this is done 
by means of a corn harvester or sled cutter, as is now generally 
the case. The yield seems more dependent on the number of plants 
grown on a certain area of land than on the arrangement of plant- 
ing the corn. Hills four feet each way, with four stalks to the 
hill, will thus usually give about the same yield as hills two feet 
apart, with stalks two stalks to the hill or drills four feet apart 
with stalks one foot apart in the row, etc. The question of plant- 
ing corn in hills or in drills is therefore largely one of greater or 
less labor in keeping the land free from weeds by the two methods. 
This will depend on the character of the land; where the land is 
uneven, and check-rowing of the corn difficult, or when the land 
is free from weeds, drill planting is preferable, while, conversely, 
on fields where this can be done, the corn may more easily and 
cheaply be kept free from weeds if planted in hills and check- 
rowed. Since one of the advantages of the silo is economical pro- 
duction and preservation of a good quality of feed, the economy 
and certainty in caring for the growing crop is of considerable 
importance, and generally planting in hills not too far apart will 
be found to facilitate this, especially during wet season. 

Corn is planted in hills or in drills, and not broadcast, whether 
intended for the silo, or for production of ear corn; when sown 
broadcast, the corn cannot be kept free from weeds, except by 
hand labor. More seed is moreover required, the plants shade each 
other and will therefore not reach full development, from lack of 
sufficient sunshine and moisture, and a less amount of available 
food constituents per acre will be produced. 



146 SILAGE CROPS. 

Other Silage Crops. 

Clover. We are but beginning to appreciate the value of clover 
in modern agriculture. It has been shown that the legumes, the 
family to which clover belongs, are the only common forage plants 
able to convert the free nitrogen of the air into compounds that 
may be utilized for the nutrition of animals. Clover and other 
legumes, therefoi'e, draw largely on the air for the most expensive 
and valuable fertilizing ingredient, nitrogen, and for this reason, as 
well as on account of their deep roots, which bring fertilizing ele- 
ments up near the surface, they enrich the land upon which they 
grow. Being a more nitrogenous food than corn or the grasses, 
clover supplies a good deal of the protein compounds required by 
farm animals for the maintenance of their bodies and for the pro- 
duction of milk, wool or meat. By feeding clover, a smaller pur- 
chase of high-priced concentrated feed stuffs, like flour-mill or oil- 
mill refuse products, is therefore rendered necessary than when 
corn is fed; on account of its high fertilizing value it furthermore 
enables the farmer feeding it to maintain the fertility of his land. 

When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed for nearly 
all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher protein contents it has 
an advantage over corn silage in point of lower cost of production. 
A Wisconsin dairy farmer who has siloed large quantities of clover 
estimates the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to $1, 
against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. His average yield per 
acre of green clover is about twelve tons. 

Clover silage is superior to clover hay on account of its succu- 
lence and greater palatability, as well as its higher feeding value. 
The last-mentioned point is mainly due to the fact that all the 
parts of the clover plant are preserved in the silo, with a small 
unavoidable loss in fermentation, while in hay-making, leaves and 
tender parts, which contain about two-thirds of the protein com- 
pounds, are often largely lost by abrasion. 

Contrasting results in the use of clover for silage seem to in- 
dicate that it keeps better in a cool climate than under warm or 
temperate conditions. At the Agassiz Experiment Station in Brit- 
ish Columbia three cuttings of red clover yielded 32 tons of green 
forage to the acre and made cheaper silage than the corn plant. 
In practically every instance in this region where clover has been 
used in the silo the results have been satisfactory. Prof. Harry 



CLOVER FOR SUMMER SILOS. 147 

Hayward of the Pennsylvania Experiment Station states that as 
a result of experiments carried on there he believes a small amount 
of clover will go much farther in the silo than it will if pastured. 
Attempts at the Wisconsin Experiment Station to make silage out 
of the whole clover plant without chopping were not satisfactory. 
By running the green clover through cutter, however, and tramp- 
ing it thoroughly, fairly good results were obtained. 

The latest experiments on the question of using clover as silage 
have been conducted at the Montana Experiment Station by Prof. 
R. W. Clark. His results showed that second crop clover made 
into silage during September and October after being frozen, kept 
well until May and June the following year. After the weather 
became warm, however, it grew dark in color, strong in odor and 
was not relished by the cows. During the winter months the cat- 
tle uniformly had a keen appetite for it. 

In milk production 2.33 pounds of clover silage was required to 
equal one pound of good clover hay, this difference being due 
largely to the difference in moisture content. In calculating the 
results, timothy hay was placed at a value of $10 a ton, clover 
hay at $6, clover silage at $2.50 a ton, and grain at $20 a ton. 

An average of the three experiments, which were conducted 
with precautions to make up for the varying individually of the 
cows, showed the cost of producing 100 pounds milk was 73.9 
cents on clover hay and 73.4 cents on clover silage. The cost of 
a pound of fat on the hay was 17.9 cents, while on the silage it 
M-as 17.8. The daily production of milk on clover hay was 22.8 
pounds and 0.93 pound of fat, compared to 24.8 pounds and 0.97 
pound of fat on the clover silage. 

The general indications seem to be that clover silage has a 
value of about $2.55 a ton under Montana conditions and when it 
Is necessary to save the crop in this way or else have it lose value 
on account of weather conditions, it may very well be preserved 
in the silo. 

Under corn belt conditions where corn has already become 
established as the favorite silage crop, probably little clover will 
be used. Very frequently, however, the clover crop is threatened 
with damage by rain or too intense sunshine, and it may be easily 
and cheaply placed in a silo regardless of the weather and pre- 
served in a perfect condition. The failures reported in the early 



148 



SILAGE CROPS. 



stag-es of silo filling were largely due to the faulty construction of 
the silo. Clover does not pack as well as the heavy green corn, 
and, therefore, requires to be cut and weighted, or calls for greater 
depth in the silo, in order that the air may be sufficiently excluded. 

The clover should not be left to wilt between cutting and silo- 
ing, and the silo should be filled rapidly, so as to cause no unneces- 
sary losses by fermentation. 

The different species of clover will prove satisfactory silo crops; 
ordinary red or medium clover is most used in Northwestern 
States, along with mammoth clover; the latter matures later than 
medium or red clover, and may therefore be siloed later than these. 

When to Cut Clover for the Silo. — The yield of food materials 
obtained from clover at different stages of growth has been studied 
by a number of scientists. The following table giving the results 
of an investigation conducted by Professor Atwater will show the 
total quantities of food materials secured at four different stages 
of growth of red clover: 

Table XII.— Yield Per Acre of Red Clover — in Pounds. 



STAGE OF CUTTING 


Green 
Weight 


Dry 
Matter 


Crude 
Pro- 
tein 


Crude 
Fibre 


N-free 

Ex- 
tract 


Crude 
Fat 


Ash 


Just before bloom..,. | 3,570 | 1,385 

Full bloom 1 2,650 | 1,401 

Nearly out of bloom.. | 4,960 | 1,750 
Nearly ripe | 3,910 | 1,523 


198 
189 

230 
158 


384 
390 

523 
484 


664 24 115 

682 1 33 107 
837 51 129 
746 36 99 



Professor Hunt obtained 3,600 pounds of hay per acre from 
clover cut in full bloom, and 3,260 pounds when three-fourths of 
the heads were dead. The yields of dry matter in the two cases 
were 2,526 pounds, and 2,427 pounds respectively. All compon- 
ents, except fiber (see Glossary), yielded less per acre in, the sec- 
ond cutting. Jordan found the same result, comparing the yields 
and composition of clover cut when in bloom, some heads dead, 
and heads all dead, the earliest cutting giving the maximum yield 
of dry matter, and of all components except crude fibre. 

The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for the silo 
when in full bloom, or when the first single heads are beginning to 
wilt, that is, when right for hay-making, and we notice that the 



CLOVER FOR SUMMER SILOS. 149 

teachings of the investigations made are in conformity with this 
practice. 

Many farmers are increasing the value of their corn silage by 
the addition of clover. A load of clover to a load or two loads of 
well-matured corn is a good mixture. 

Clover for Summer Silage. — By filling the clover into the silo 
at midsummer, or before, space is utilized that would otherwise be 
empty; the silage will, furthermore, be available for feeding in the 
latter part of the summer and during the fall, when the pastures 
are apt to run short. This makes it possible to keep a larger num- 
ber of stock on the farm than can be the case if pastures alone 
are to be relied upon, and thus greatly facilitates intensive farm- 
ing. Now that stave silos of any size may be easily and cheaply 
put up, it will be found very convenient at least on dairy farms, 
to keep a small separate silo for making clover silage that may be 
fed out during the summer, or at any time simultaneously with 
the feeding of corn silage. This extra silo may also be used for 
the siloing of odd lots of forage that may happen to be available 
(see page 159). It is a good plan in siloing clover or other com- 
paratively light crops in rather small silos, to put a layer of corn 
on top that will weight down the mass below, and secure a more 
thorough packing and thereby also a better quality of silage. 

In several instances Avhere there has still been a supply of 
clover silage in the silo, green corn has been filled in on top of the 
clover, and the latter has been sealed and thus preserved for a 
number of years. Corn silage once settled and "sealed," will also 
keep perhaps indefinitely when left undisturbed in the silo," with- 
out deteriorating appreciably in feeding value or palatability. 

Says a Canadian dairy farmer: "If we were asked for our 
opinion as to what will most help the average dairy farmer, I think 
we would reply: Knowledge of a balanced ration, the Babcock 
test, and a summer silo; then varying the feed of individual ani- 
mals according to capacity; as shown by scales and close observa- 
tion." Prof. Neale and others recommended the use of scarlet 
clover for summer silage, for Delaware and States under similar 
climatic conditions. 

Prof. Cottrell writing for Kansas farmers, says: "Silage will 
keep as long as the silo is not opened, and has been kept in good 
condition for seven years. This is a special advantage for Kansas 



150 SILAGE CROPS. 

dairymen, as in years of heavy crops the surplus can be stored in 
silos for years of drouth, malcing all years good crop years for silo 
dair>-men." 

Alfalfa (lucerne) is the great, coarse forage plant of the West, 
and during late years it has been grown considerably in the North- 
ern and Central States. In irrigated districts it will yield more 
food materials per acre of land than perhaps any other crop. Four 
to five cuttings, each yielding a ton to a ton and a half of hay, are 
common in these regions, and the yields obtained are often much 
higher. In humid regions three cuttings may ordinarily be ob- 
tained, each of one to une and a half tons of hay. 

Much has been written regarding the mixture of alfalfa with 
other crops in the silo to secure a balanced ration. It is true that 
there is perhaps no crop better than alfalfa for balancing corn 
silage. But the best practice among Western feeders and colleges 
is to supply this ration in the dry form. In this way it furnishes 
the necessary roughage to neutralize the succulence of the silage, 
and enables the feeder to balance his feed to suit the needs of dif- 
ferent animals or different classes of stock. 

Alfalfa finds its greatest friend in the silo in seasons when for 
any reason it cannot be properly cured. It may then be siloed and 
preserved to great advantage. 

While the large bulk of the crop is cured as hay, alfalfa is 
nevertheless of considerable importance as a silage crop in dairy 
and beef sections of the Western States. As with red clover, re- 
ports of failure in siloing alfalfa are on record, but first-class 
alfalfd. silage can be readily made in deep, modern silos, when the 
crop is cut when in full bloom, and the plants are not allowed to 
wilt much before being run through a cutter and siloed. In the 
opinion of the dairymen who have had large experience in siloing 
alfalfa, sweet alfalfa silage is more easily made than good alfalfa 
hay. 

A general summary of alfalfa silage experiments at the Col- 
orado experiment station states that under the best of ordinary 
conditions, for every hundred pounds of feeding value in green 
alfalfa at the time it is cut, 77 pounds will be saved if the hay Is 
well cured and put in a stack under good conditions. If it is put 
into the barn, 86 pounds will be saved and 90 pounds if it is made 
into first-class silage. The extra cost of putting it up as silage is 



CLOVER FOR SUMMER SILOS. 151 

believed to be somewhat balanced up by the fact that alfalfa can 
be put into a silo even under bad weather conditions. In general 
the results from the use of alfalfa as a silage crop have indicated 
that it makes first-class feed and keeps well for the first few 
months, but that after this time there is a tendency to decompose, 
take on a bad odor and lose considerable of its feeding value. 

What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover refers to 
alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares favorably with clover 
silage, both in chemical composition and in feeding value. It is 
richer in flesh-forming substances (protein) than clover silage, or 
any other kind of silage, and makes a most valuable feed for farm 
animals, especially young stock and dairy cows. 

Additional information regarding the use of alfalfa as a silage 
crop will be found in chapter eight of this book, entitled "Silage 
Crops for the Semi-Arid Regions and for the South." 

Cow Peas are to the South what alfalfa is to the West, and 
when properily handled make excellent and most valuable silage. 
The cow peas are sown early in the season, either broadcast, about 
1% bushels to the acre and turned under with a one-horse turning 
plow, or drilled in rows about two feet apart. They are cut with 
a mower when one-half or more of the peas on the vines are fully 
ripe, and are immediately raked in windrows and hauled to the 
silo, where they are run through a feed cutter and cut into inch 
or half inch lengths. 

Cow pea silage is greatly relished by farm animals after they 
ohce become accustomed to its peculiar flavor; farmers who have 
had considerable practical experience in feeding this silage are of 
the opinion that cow-pea silage has no equal for cows and sheep. 
It is also a good hog food, and for all these animals is considered 
greatly superior to pea-vine hay. In feeding experiments at a 
Delaware experiment station six pounds of pea -vine silage fully 
took the place of one pound of wheat bran, and the product of one 
acre was found equivalent to two tons o^ bran. 

Instead of placing only cow peas in the silo, alternate loads of 
cow peas and corn may be cut and filled into the silo, which will 
make a very satisfactory mixed silage, much richer in muscle 
building material than pure corn silage. A modification of this 
practice is known as Getty's method, in which corn and cow peas 
are grown in alternate rows, and harvested together with a corn 



152 SILAGE CROPS. 

harvester. Corn for this combination crop is preferably a large 
Southern variety, drilled in rows 4% feet apart, with stalks 9 to 
16 inches apart in the row. Whippoorwill peas are planted in drills 
close to the rows of corn when this is about six inches high, and 
has been cultivated once. The crop is cut when the corn is begin- 
ning to glaze, and when three-fourths of the pea pods are ripe. 

The corn and peas are tied into bundles and these run through 
the silage cutter. The cut corn and peas are carefully leveled off 
and trampled down in the silo, and about a foot cover of green 
corn, straw or cottonseed hulls placed on top of the siloed mass. 
As in case of all legumes, it is safest to wet the cover thoroughly 
with at least two gallons of water per square foot of surface. This 
will seal the siloed mass thoroughly and will prevent the air from 
working in from the surface and spoiling considerable of the 
silage on top. 

Robertson Silage Mixture. — A similar effort of combining 
several feeds for the silo is found in the so-called Robertson Silage 
Mixture for the silo, named after Prof. Robertson in Canada. 
This is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower seed heads, and 
horse beans in the proportion of 1 acre corn, % acre horse beans, 
and Vi acre sunflowers. The principle back of the practice is to 
furnish a feed richer in protein substance than corn, and thus 
avoid the purchase of large quantities of expensive protein foods 
like bran, oil meal, etc. Feeding experiments conducted with the 
Robertson Silage Mixture for cows at several experiment stations 
have given very satisfactory results, and have shown that this 
silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain ration of 
milch cows without causing loss of flesh or lessening the produc- 
tion of milk or fat. Fifteen pounds of this silage may be consid- 
ered equivalent to three or four pounds of grain feeds. The prac- 
tice has not, however, been adopted to any great extent, so far as 
is known, owing to the difficulty of securing a good quality of 
silage from the mixture and of growing the horse beans success- 
fully. 

Soy beans are another valuable silage crop. According to the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture the soy bean is highly nutritive, 
gives a heavy yield, and is easily cultivated. The vigorous late 
varieties are well adapted for silage. On account of their highly 
nitrogenous character, soy beans are most economical when 



SOY BEANS AND SORGHUM. 153 

mixed with corn, and like otiier legumes they improve the silage 
by tending to counteract the acid reaction of the corn. The mix- 
ture also produces a more nearly balanced ration than either crop 
alone, and avoids the necessity of using purchased concentrates 
such as grain, bran, cpttonseed, etc. Some have found that the 
soy beans save rt least half the grain bill. The crops may be 
mixed to best advantage for both cutting and feeding, by placing 
the soy beans on top of the corn as it enters the silage cutter, in 
the proportion of two, three, four or Ave parts of corn, as desired, 
to one part of soy beans. The latter should be siloed when the 
pods are well formed and the seeds are nearly grown. Of other 
southern crops' that are used for silage may be mentioned chicken 
corn and teosinte. 

Sorghums. — Sorghum crops, both saccharine and non- 
accharine (sweet and non-sweet), can be used for silage with good 
results. The saccharine sorghums include the Amber, Orange, 
Sumac and Gooseneck groups. The non-saccharine varieties em- 
brace the Kafir and White Milo groups, and the Dhoura group. 
Their drouth-resistant qualities have done much to make sorghum 
the leading crop in the drier parts of the South and West — they 
remain fresh and green through drouths that would ruin corn. 
They are also less liable to be damaged by insects than corn. The 
yield per acre of green sorghum will often reach 20 tons, or one- 
half again as much as a good crop of corn. The Ottawa (Can.) 
Station states that sorghum, where it can be grown, makes an 
excellent crop for silage. It needs to be cut, the best length, as in 
the case of corn, being about one-half inch. 

While the sorghums are adapted for growing on almost any 
kind of soil they produce best on fairly heavy, well drained loams, 
rich in humus; but when grown on gumbo, hard-pan, sandy or 
other poor soils, they are more successful than most other crops. 

Sorghums usually yield well with little care. They are excel- 
lent to plant on prairie sod or alfalfa sod. For silage, sorghum 
should be planted in rows like corn and cultivated; in fact, the 
crop is handled throughout like corn. 

In experiments at the Tennessee Station, A. M. Soule found that 
"as fine a quality of silage can be made from sorghum as from 
any other crop and there seems to be little choice between the 
feeding values of sorghum and corn silage for beef production." 



154 SILAGE CROPS. 

He states that "farmers who experience difficulty in making good 
silage either cut the crops too green or else have improperly con- 
structed silos." 

Sorghum, like corn, contains an excess of carbohydrates and is 
somewhat deficient in protein. Its value is increased therefore by 
the addition of some leguminous crop such as cow peas. 

Reports in the agricultural press indicate that many feeders 
make a practice of combining their kafir, milo or sorghum in the 
silo with corn, or with cow peas, field peas or other legume, 
and with success. 

Further information regarding the sorghum crops for silage, 
including the latest experiments along that line, will be found in 
Chapter VIII., where silage crops for the Semi-Arid Regions are 
discussed. 

Sorghum bagasse is the name given to the crushed stalk of 
sorghum cane, and has been used with some success as silage. 
In Prof. Henry's "Feeds and Feeding," he says: "The bagasse, or 
waste, of the sorghum syrup factories, which has considerable 
feeding value, should not be wasted, but may be satisfactorily 
ensiled." Naturally, bagasse is a little dryer than most crops as 
they are put into the silo, and the addition of water would greatly 
assist in packing it tight enough together to keep qut the air and 
thus prevent spoiling. Corn may be mixed with the bagasse if 
desired. As a safeguard against spoilage, the bagasse should be 
siloed as soon as it comes from the mill and in considerable quan- 
, tity each day. 

Feterita is a comparatively new semi-arid crop that has abso- 
lutely proved itself as an early maturing drouth-resistant feed. 
Its superiority over any similar crop was conspicuous under the 
severe conditions of 1914 throughout Oklahoma. It is generally 
conceded to be almost exactly the equal of kafir corn and milo 
maize in food value and in its proportion of various elements, and 
since both of these crops make excellent silage it will doubtless 
follow in the same class. A large number of silo owners in 
Oklahoma and Texas are trying out this crop at the time this book 
goes to press. 

Teosinte. — This forage plant in tassel and appearance closely 
resembles corn with no ear formed. Stock relish it and its food 
value is high. It is very juicy and succulent and has been sue- 



VARIOUS CROPS FOR SILAGE. 155 

cessfully siloed, but is not so good for this purpose as corn. Burk- 
ett says that if allowed to mature and used as dry fodder it makes 
a very heavy yield, running several tons of dry matter to the acre. 
It demands a rich soil with a good deal of moisture, and is partial 
to hot climates, but unlike sorghum and kaflr, it cannot resist 
drouth. 

Kale. — The Oregon Experiment Station at Corvallis reports very 
palatable silage from a mixture of eight tons of Kale and two tons 
of mixed hay, cut short and well packed. Kale is not well adapted 
for a silage crop, however, on account of its high water content, 
and should only be put in the silo to avoid a loss in the spring. 

Sudan Grass, a wonderful drouth-resister, supposed to be the 
parent stock of the cultivated sorghums, is making rapid strides 
as a hay and fodder crop throughout Colorado, Oklahoma, South- 
ern California and the Southwest generally. The seed is hard to 
distinguish from Johnson grass. For large yields it should be 
planted in rows from 30 to 36 inches apart, using from 2 to 4 
pounds of seed to the acre, and cultivated. On account of its new- 
ness and the heavy demand for seed, data is not available as to 
its feeding value. It is the general opinion of feeders, however, 
that it will make an excellent silage crop, if allowed to mature 
properly before being placed in the silo. 

Devil Grass or Broncho Grass and Fox Tail have sometimes 
proved a problem to alfalfa growers in California. Some feeders 
have found that the beards of the Devil Grass and Fox Tail are 
rendered harmless by cutting and siloing them along with the oat 
hay, barley or wheat hay and second cutting of alfalfa and that it 
makes a silage superior to alfalfa and grain hay silage alone, 
leaving the ground available for a crop of corn. 

Vetches are relished by livestock of all kinds. They are ex- 
cellent for milk production and have splendid fattening properties. 
Being of the legume family, they are best adapted for hay, but 
when conditions are unfavorable they may be cut into short 
lengths and well packed in the silo and will make a very agree- 
able feed. They should be cut the same time as for hay. 

Peanuts are especially valuable if mixed with kaflr corn in the 
silo, as they make a much better balanced feed than kaflr corn 
alone. 



156 SILAGE CROPS. 

Broom Corn. — Excellent results have been obtained in North- 
west Oklahoma and Southwest Kansas by cutting the broom corn 
stalks after the tops have been removed and preserving them in the 
silo. Such silage contains no grain, and is, of course, greatly in- 
ferior to other crops that contain grain, but it is a practical way 
of saving this feed, that otherwise would be, to a large extent, 
lost. 

Johnson Grass is a tall vigorous grass, closely related to the 
sorghums. As a silage crop it has not been used except to a lim- 
ited extent, but it has possibilities worth investigating. One of the 
southern Agricultuial Colleges partially filled a silo with Johnson 
grass in 1913 and claim good results, so that further tests will 
be made with it. 

Miscellaneous Silage Crops. — In Northern Europe, especially in 
England, and the Scandinavian countries, meadow grass and after- 
math (rowen) are usually siloed; in England, at the present time, 
largely in stacks. 

In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar-beet pulp can 
be obtained in large quantities and at a low cost, stock raisers and 
dairymen have a most valuable aid in preserving the pulp in the 
silo. As the pulp is taken from the factory it contains about 90 
per cent, of water; it packs well in the silo, being heavy, finely 
divided and homogeneous, and a more shallow silo can therefore 
be safely used in making pulp silage than is required in, siloing 
corn, and especially clover and other crops of similar character. 
If pulp is siloed with other fodder crops, it is preferably placed 
uppermost, for the reason stated. Beet tops and pulp are often 
siloed in alternate layers in pits 3 to 4 feet deep, and covered with 
boards and a layer of dirt. Beet pulp can also be successfully 
placed in any modern deep silo, and is preferably siloed in such 
silos as there will then be much smaller losses of food materials 
than in case of shallow silos or trenches in the field. 

Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low in ash 
and carbohydrates (nutr. ratio 1:5.7; see Glossary). Its feeding 
value is equal to about half that of corn silage. 

The Colorado Station has found that two tons of pulp are the 
equivalent of one ton of beets, which confirms the Nebraska test 
showing the feeding value of sugar beets to be practically equiv- 



WHEAT, RYE AND OATS. 157 

alent to corn silage, pound for pound, for dairy cows. The use of 
beet tops for silage is discussed on page 166 of this book. 

Wheat, rye and oats have been siloed for summer feeding with 
some success. They should be cut in Y^ inch lengths and well 
tramped around the edges. A recent correspondent in Hoard's 
Dairyman tells of sowing some 23 acres of rye and 9 acres of wheat 
in the fall and filling one silo with the rye the following May and 
the other with wheat early in June, just when they were headed 
out but before the grain was actually formed. Several acres of 
oats and peas were put into a third silo the first week in July. 
In cutting the rye and wheat it was necessary to take the precau- 
tion of cuttinig into short lengths and of carefully treading and 
packing it in the silo, in order to insure its keeping qualities. "It 
has kept very well until entirely consumed by the cattle, and we 
have no reason to suppose that it would not have kept if we had 
not used it up when we did. But our experience has been that 
neither the rye nor the wheat is equal to corn silage for feed. 
In fact the cows did not eat the rye as clean as they should have 
done and fell off somewhat in milk. When we began on the wheat, 
however, they did better, and we believe the wheat to be better 
material for silage than rye." 

Oats and peas may be put into the silo and they make a very 
satisfactory silage. As a rule, those plants which have a hollow 
stem, like oats, do not keep well in the silo unless great care is 
taken to have them very well tramped, as the hollow stems carry 
too much air. If the late summer and fall are not too dry it will 
be possible to produce a crop of cow peas for ensilage, planted 
after oats harvest. 

Oats have been put in the silo to kill mustard seed before the 
latter plants were matured, but after maturity the seeds are so 
well protected that it is doubtful if the heating and fermentation 
would destroy them. 

When legumes such as alfalfa, clover, vetch and pea« are put 
into the silo, they should be ensiled with some such crop as corn, 
rye or oats. The legumes alone do not contain enough sugar to 
afford the production of sufficient acid to prevent the high protein 
content of the legume from decaying. The corn, rye or oats, mixed 
with the legumes, would provide sugar for the production of suf- 
ficient acid to preserve both plants. The rye should be mixed 



158 SILAGE CROPS. 

with the legume in the proportion of two-thirds legume and one- 
third rye. In this way, rye may be sown for fall and spring pas- 
ture, cut for silage and the ground plowed and used for some other 
crop. 

Occasional mention has furthermore been made in the agri- 
tural literature of the siloing of a large number of plants, or 
products, like vetches, small grains (cut green), buckwheat, arti- 
choke tops, cabbage leaves, sugar beets, potatoes, potato leaves, 
turnips, brewers' grains, apple pomace, refuse from corn and pea 
canning factories; twigs, and leaves, and hop vines; even fern 
(brake), thistles, and ordinary weeds have been made into silage, 
and used with more or less success as foods for farm animals. 

The value of fern, or common brake, for silage is very doubt- 
ful. It grows on the wild pasture lands throughout Western Ore- 
gon and has practically no feeding value. The Corvallis, (Ore.) 
Station says that it is very dangerous when fed to horses because 
of a stringent quality which causes a serious nervous disorder. 
Where farmers are troubled with a large quantity of fern in their 
hay crop they should use a crop rotation, including a cultivated 
crop, which will soon get rid of the fern and permit the raising 
of profitable crops. 

A Wisconsin farmer has been using Canada thistles as silage 
for several seasons. . He claims that after they have been cut up 
and placed in the silo for a week or two, they become very soft 
and palatable and says that the cattle eat this food ravenously 
to the last scrap and never seem to get enough of it. 

Russian Thistles have been used for silage to a considerable 
extent in the Dakotas west of the river, and in Colorado, Wyoming 
and other semi-arid sections, with good results. They have strong 
drouth-resistant qualities and are very nutritious. Analysis shows 
them to closely resemble alfalfa in food value with about 18% 
protein. The plant is eaten with relish by all kinds of live stock. 
The Russian thistle has usually been considered a detriment and a 
pest. Farmers are advised against raising them either for silage 
or forage, or allowing them to take possession of their places. But 
the very fact that they thrive most abundantly in dry years, just 
when silage crops are most likely to be scarce, is the soundest 
reason why the pest should be turned to good account in the silo 
and this is just what hundreds of farmers are doing. 



MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. 159 

As to the use of weeds it is a Icnown fact that live stock of all 
kinds will eat nearly any kind of weeds in certain seasons and 
under certain conditions, and thrive on them. At a recent conven- 
tion of the California Dairy Association the president, Mr. A. P. 
Martin, stated that the best silage he ever made, besides com, 
was made of weeds. A piece of wheat which was sowed early, 
was drowned out, and the field came up with tar weed and sorrel. 
This was made into silage, and when fed to milch cows, produced 
most satisfactory results. 

Alvord says that a silo may be found a handy and profitable 
thing to have on a farm even if silage crops are not regularly 
raised to fill it. There are always waste products, green or half- 
dry, with coarse "materials like swale hay, that are generally used 
for compost or bedding, which may be made into palatable silage. 
A mixture, in equal parts, of rag-weed, swamp grass or swale hay, 
old com stalks or straw, and second-crop green clover, nearly 
three-fourths of which would otherwise be almost useless, will 
make a superior silage, surprising to those who have never tried 
it. 

The following description of the contents filled into a New 
York silo, which was used as a sort of catch-all, is given by the 
same writer: 18 in. deep of green oats; 6 in. of red clover; 6 in. 
of Canada field peas; 3 in. of brewers' grains; 2 feet of whole corn 
plants, sowed broadcast, and xnore rag- weed than corn; 5 in. of 
second-crop grass; 12 in. of sorghum; and a lot immature com 
cut in short lengths. The silage came out pretty acid, but made 
good forage, and was all eaten up clean. Damaged crops like 
frosted beets, potatoes, cabbages, etc.; rutabagas which showed 
signs of decay, and clover that could not be made into hay because 
of rain, may all be placed in a silo and thus made to contribute to 
the food supply on the farm. 

A peculiar use of the silo is reported from California, viz., for 
rendering foxtail in alfalfa fields harmless in feeding cattle. The 
foxtail which almost takes the first crop of alfalfa in many parts 
of California is a nutritious grass, but on account of its beards, 
is dangerous to feed, if cut when nearly ripe or later. By siloing 
the crop the foxtail will be rendered harmless; the alfalfa-foxtail 
silage thus obtained is eaten by stock with great relish and with- 
out any injurious effects. (Woll.) 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SILAGE CROPS FOR THE SEMI-ARID REGIONS 
AND FOR THE SOUTH. 

In those parts of the Southwest including the Great Plains 
region, where limited precipitation, evaporation and temperature 
conditions combine to make moisture conservation the vital prob- 
lem, the silo is finding one of its greatest fields of usefulness. 

It is generally conceded that when it can be grown success- 
fully, corn is pre-eminently the silage crop. In many sections, 
however, corn does not mature or make sufl^cient yield, either in 
fodder or grain, to justify its use as compared with other crops 
well adapted to the siloing system, which do not require nearly so 
much moisture, and it is of these crops that we wish to speak in 
this chapter. Stockmen are beginning to realize that they must 
have a permanent feed supply, one that will produce a good yield 
even under drouth conditions, or the live stock industry itself 
cannot be permanent, and the haphazard method of depending 
entirely on Nature's offerings for the present need is fast becom- 
ing obsolete. With the ability of Western Kansas, for instance, 
to produce crops such as kafir, milo, saccharine sorghum and the 
broom corns, there Is no reason why there should ever be a short- 
age of feed such as the farmers of that section experienced in 
the winter of 1911-12. 

The sorghums are the crops of first importance as silage in 
the regions where moisture is the controlling factor in crop pro- 
duction. The sweet sorghums have usually been considered a 
poor substitute for com in the silo, but the conditions under 
which they are grown in regions of light rainfall, to a large ex- 
tent, overcome the difficulty which is found in other sections of 
the country. If they are allowed to mature quite fully before they 
are .cut for the silo, they do not form an abnormal amount of 
acid as they do when cut too green, or when grown under heavy 
rainfall conditions. 

For convenient reference the matter that follows has been 
classified under various states, although it should be remembered 
that the discussion relative to one state is very often applicable to 

160 



CROPS FOR KANSAS. 1(51 

other sections where similar moisture and temperature conditions 
prevail. 

Kansas. — The conditions covered by Prof. Reed of the Kansas 
Exp.ei'iment Station are, therefore, representative of many other 
regions; 

"There is a prevailing opinion among many farmers and 
users of silos that the sweet sorghum is unfit for silage, that on 
account of the high sugar content there will be a large amount 
of acid formed, and the silage will be too sour to feed. It is true 
that this plant does contain a large amount of sugar, and the 
silcXge will become very sour if the crop is put up too green. In 
most cases where unsatisfactory results have been obtained by 
ensiloing sweet sorghum, it has been duo to the fact that the 
crop was put in too green. Last year the Kansas Experiment 
Station obtained twelve and one-half tons of sowtd cane per 
acre as against five tons of corn that was listed. These crops 
were put into the silo at the proper time, and they both made 
good feed. Quite contrary to the general opinion and experience 
it was found that the acid content of the sweet sorghum silage 
was less than that of the corn silage at all times. This silage 
was fed to dairy cows and they did not show any preference 
between the two kinds of silage. The excellent quality of the 
sweet sorghum silage was accounted for from the fact that it 
was put up at the right time. 

"Sorghum crops should be almost mature when they are 
cut for silage. If cut too early the stalk will contain entirely too 
much juice. At the time the seed hardens, the stalk of the sweet 
sorghum and kafir plant will be well filled with sap, yet will not 
contain an excess so as to cause the silage to sour in the silo." 

Even the most stunted kafir can be saved with the silo. At 
the Kansas Station, kafir that was so stunted in its growth by 
reason of drought that it yielded only a ton to the acre, with no 
grain whatever, was made into silage and was eaten readily 
by the stock. It served to furnish a succulent feed, where other- 
wise all of their feed would have been of a dry nature. 

Oklahoma. — James A. Wilson, director of the Oklahoma Sta- 
tion, writes that "for ensilage purposes we have used sorghum 
cane considerably during the past few years. The nonsaccharine 
sorghums, such as kafir and milo, make very excellent silage. We 



162 CROPS FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONS. 

have also had good success with the sugar cane or Amb^r cane. 
"There is this difference, however, tliat should be observed in 
filling the silo with the above crops, namely, that the kafir corn 
and milo maize should be allowed to fully mature, that is, allow- 
ing the sap to carry the sugar up into the stalk which is usually 
done just before the plant is fully matured. While in the case 
of sugar cane, we have found it best to cut this on the green 
side before the maximum amount of sugar has been deposited 
in the plant, otherwise, we find that sugar cane ensilage sours." 

Bulletin No. 181 of the Oklahoma Station says: "Silos are 
not luxuries but necessities in Oklahoma. The silo does not 
only pi'eserve fodder in its best form for feeding, but provides 
the cheapest of feeds for cattle and sheep. The whole corn or 
sorghum crop be stored up — butt, stalks and all — so that hardly 
any is lost. 

"Silage is much relished by stock, especially by cattle and 
sheep. It is palatable, cheap and succulent, thins and cools the 
blood, improves the handling qualities of skin and hair, tones 
up the digestive system, and improves the health generally. 
Breeding females are put in good condition for producing healthy 
offspring, and after parturition are better able to give plenty of 
milk than when on a dry ration. To a large extent it is a pre- 
ventive of digestive troubles, and with dairy cows it lessens con- 
siderably the chances of milk fever and garget. The legumes. 
Buch as alfalfa, cow peas, clover, soy beans, while they can be 
made into silage, are not satisfactory when mixed alone, as they 
will not pack sufficiently, but when mixed with a good propor- 
tion of corn or kafir fodder make a first-class, well balanced 
silage." 

Texas. — Sorghum is a .sure crop in Texas and will produce 
a fine quality of ensilage. Texas Bulletin No. 11 says that the 
heavy growing varieties svich as the Orange and African cane 
are preferred. It is planted in drills three feet six inches apart 
and cultivated. If it is planted early, two good crops can be 
secured in one season on the same ground if the stubble is 
cultivated after the first crop is cut off. This crop should also 
be allowed to mature until the seed are hard. 

An authority on silage conditions in Texas, connected with 
the Frisco Railroad System, writes that "Sorghum is the most 



OKLAHOMA AND TEXAS CROPS. 163 

valuable plant that we have for silage. For this purpose it is, of 
course, grown in drills or rows, in the same way that corn is 
grown. It does not make quite as good grade of silage as corn, 
but it makes so much more to the acre that it is preferable. We 
frequently get two cuttings to the season, but if we get only one, 
the yield is so much more than the corn that any difference 
in nutritive value is overcome. Some farmers practice mixing 
sorghum and corn, but I do not think this is desirable in the 
South. Cow pea vines and sorghum would make a most excellent 
mixture for silage purposes, except the pea vines have a disad- 
vantage of being difficult to handle; but the sorghum being rich 
in carbohydrates and the pea vines rich in protein matter, the 
mixture, as you will readily see, is an exceedingly good one. 

"I receive letters sometimes from parties who seem to have 
a doubt as to whether silage can be made successfully in this 
climate, but there is no part of Texas in which it is not an entire 
success, and silos ought to be constructed and used much more 
widely than they are in this State. Sorghum silage is eaten 
readily by horses and mules of the farm, as well as by cattle, 
and it can be made to form an important part of the ration of 
the farm work stock, as well as the stock intended for the butcher, 
including hogs." 

Texas Station Bulletin No. 11 says that the crops most de- 
sirable for the silo in Texas are corn, sorghum, cow peas, alfalfa 
and ribbon cane tops. Indian corn is the crop most generally 
used for the silo in that state. Sorghum, kafir and milo are also 
used extensively. Prof. Burns says that these four crops are 
sometimes planted in rows together, the result being a mixed 
silage of high quality. Kafir and milo are chiefly used in the 
semi-arid sections of the state where Indian corn does not thrive 
well. "All crops planted especially for the silo should be grown 
a little more thickly than when planted to harvest in the ordinary 
way, and they should become very well matured before being cut. 
Experience indicates that the best results are secured from 
corn and sorghum just as the grain begins to harden. The 
other crops will make a good ensilage at the same time they 
would be cut for hay. Combinations of coi'n and cow peas or 
sorghum and cow peas planted at the same time and in the same 
row make splendid ensilage and supply a nearly ba,lanced ration 
with which very little grain is needed." 



164 CROPS FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONS. 

New Mexico. — Prof. Simpson of the New Mexico Station writes 
regarding silage crops in that state as follows: "Just as corn is 
used for the leading crop in the Corn Belt states, nonsaccharine 
sorghums, as kafir corn and milo, are used in this country. They 
are much more successfully grown here than corn, as they with- 
stand the drought better and are not bothered by the worms. 
Kaflr corn and milo silage has been proven to be very good in 
feeding value; and especially is this true in New Mexico, as the 
larger part of the feeds which must be used with silage are of 
a nitrogenous character. Alfalfa is our leading hay crop, and 
bran, cottonseed meal, wheat, oats, kafir and milo are the prin- 
cipal grains used in feeding. Of course, we have practically two 
conditions in New Mexico that are absolutely opposite; the irri- 
gated sections and the dry-farming sections. In the irrigated 
valleys kafir corn and milo grown for silage make a very heavy 
yield and will undoubtedly stand first for silage crops. In the 
dry-farming sections the same two crops prevail, as more suc- 
cess comes from them than any other crops. I have been over a 
great deal of the dry-farming country in the last two weeks 
(October, 1912), and in most sections they have a very good 
cTop of kafir and milo this year. The tonnage will be heavy 
wherever it is used for silage. However, I am afraid that there 
is going to be a great deal wasted feed in those sections, because 
of the fact that they have few silos. Some of the people are 
putting their crops in silos, but others are simply growing it as 
fodder. If we could get a large percentage of the crops raised 
in the dry-farming sections this year into silos and fed to stock, 
especially dairy cattle, I conscientiously believe that it would 
mean a great advantage in the settling up and improving of the 
country. Most of the silos in the dry-farming country are noth- 
ing more than underground types, but they serve the purpose very 
well where the person has no money to put up another kind. 

"We have a great variety of crops, both in the irrigated and 
the dry-farming section, which make fairly good silage, and by 
utilizing them a great saving will be accomplished. Of course, 
there is no advantage in putting alfalfa into the silo, if it can 
be made into first-class hay. However, oftentimes when it is 
time for the second or third cut, our rains are so persistent that 
it is impossible to get it into first-class hay. This can still be 
made into good feed by making into silage, and the farmers will 



NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA CROPS. 165 

be able to utilize the full value of it. Some report that they have 
had very good success by putting barley, wheat, or rye crops into 
the silo and cutting- them a little green. However, as the stalks 
contain so much air, they must be carefully tramped and wet 
down to keep, and do not make first-class silage, although the-y 
are good. 

"In section.s where sugar beets are grown, the tops are put 
into the silo with good success, with not only a large saving 
made on the crop, but they make excellent silage. 

"Cow peas and soy beans are gi'own in some localities vevy 
successfully, and they make first-class silage. Sorghum is an- 
other crop which makes vei'y good silage, if allowed to mature 
fairly well. It grows abundantly, both in the irrigated and the 
dry-farming sections and yields heavily. 

"While there are a few other crops which undoubtedly will 
prove to be good for silage, they have not yet been tried out. We 
have a great many gi-asses which, some of them, may prove valua- 
ble for silage." 

Arizona, Colorado, etc. — A. E. Vinson of the Arizona Station 
says that: "In certain sections of the semi-arid countries where 
dry-farming can be practiced or flood-water utilized in growing 
corn and sorghum, the silo will probably be found to enable the 
feeder to use more advantageously the natural pastures, which 
during part of the year produce more than enough forage for the 
herds and flocks that can be permanently maintained upon them. 

"The advantages to be anticipated from silos in Arizona are 
several. A supply of succulent feed could be kept available for 
the short winter period of poor pasture and again for the long 
period of summer drouth. This is especially important where 
dairying is practiced, and when there is a scant supply of irri- 
gating water for the pastures in late spring and early summer. 
In some localities it might be possible to grow fodder corn or 
sorghum with the summer rains. This forage could be siloed 
and fed to range stock during the drouth of the next year or used 
to fatten them for the market. It has been found that as much 
as three and one-quarter tons per acre of sorghum can be 
produced by dry-farming methods in some parts of Arizona. This 
could be preserved as ensilage in succulent condition until 
needed." 



166 CROPS FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONS. 

Beet leaves and tops may be utilized to good advantage in 
Colorado, Arizona and other sections by means of the silo. They 
should be washed free of dirt and sand, well drained and some- 
what dry. The writer quoted above says that "this material 
sometimes contains as much as 3V^ per cent of oxalic acid in the 
dry substance, of which one -half or more may be soluble in water. 
Oxalic acid has the property of withdrawing lime from other 
substances, with which it forms an insoluble oxalate. For that 
reason it is best not to feed beet leaves or beet leaf ensilage to 
growing stock since it is apt to produce unduly soft bones by 
rendering insoluble the lime necessary for their nutrition. Evtn 
for mature animals the oxalic acid should be rendered harmless 
by adding one or two pounds of slaked lime per ton of leaves 
and tops when they are siloed. Since beet leaf ensilage has 
marked laxative properties, it must be combined with a liberal 
amount of straw or other dry forage. It is best adapted for 
feeding steers, but may also be given to sheep. Dairy cows are 
said to prosper on it, provided it does not exceed one-third of the 
total ration." 

At the Colorado Station, nine feet of beet tops were placed in 
a 12x30 foot silo, after being run through a silage cutter. The 
tops had been frozen and were not in good condition, but they 
came out in the same condition as when put in. "Twenty-five 
pounds of the beet top' silage was offered each cow of the dairy 
herd in place of the twenty-five pounds of sugar beet previously 
fed, the balance of the ration remaining constant. They ate the 
tops rather reluctantly, some of them finally consuming their 
entire allowance, others never doing so. That the tops had a 
greater laxative effect than corn silage was a.pparent when a 
change to the latter was made." Beet pulp is siloed to some ex- 
tent. A high silo used for this purpose "should be provided with 
special drainage for carrying away the large quantity of water 
given off by the pulp. (See also page 156.) 

"There are a great many Russian thistles all over the dry- 
farming sections, and these are becoming a great pest," says Prof. 
Simpson. "There have been a few endeavors to make silage from 
them, and with a fair degree of success. * * * Of course, we 
do not advocate planting thistles for silage, but it makes a good 
maintenance ration when made into silage, and this is one of the 



ARIZONA AND COLORADO. 167 

best methods of eradicating thie pest, because the plants are not 
allowed to go to seed." 

The Russian thistle when young and tender is relished by cat- 
tle, but "as it reaches maturity and its feeding value becomes 
greater its hardening needles cause it to be avoided by stock. In 
the process of siloing, the needles are softened and the plant is 
again rendered palatable. The plants are very bulky in propor- 
tion to the substance which they contain, and apparently large 
quantities of them will be reduced to small bulk in the silo. The 
entire plant should be pulled to avoid waste in harvest. Unless 
finely cut, the thistles cannot be packed in the silo sufficiently 
to exclude air and prevent spoilage."* M. B. Hassig, Cope, Col- 
orado, who siloed several tons of Russian thistles, states: "I had 
twelve feet of silage made of Russian thistles on top of corn 
silage. I covered this with dirt, but not as much as I shall after 
this, as the air penetrated the earth and spoiled about two feet 
of the silage. The balance w^as well preserved and relished by 
the cattle." 

He adds that after the thistle silage was exhausted the cattle 
consumed the corn silage with greater relish. 

Corn is the preferable silage crop for all sections of Colorado 
in which it will equal other fodders in yield. Colorado Bulletin 
No. 8 recommends for the irrigated sections the following varie- 
ties: Iowa Silver Mine, Iowa Gold Mine, Improved Learning, 
Pride of the North, Colorado Yellow Dent, and Ratekin's Yellow 
Dent, and for the unirrigated districts, the White Australian. 
Squaw corn, Parson's High Altitude corn, Colorado Yellow Dent 
and Colorado White Dent. 

Owing to the good quality of alfalfa hay, the abundance of root 
crops and the difficulty of getting good yields of corn, the silo 
is not used to any great extent in Utah, although some experi- 
mental work along this line is planned by the Station at Logan 
in the near future. 

Alfalfa and cow peas, already discussed in Chapter VII, are 
not usually made into silage, except as they are mixed with corn 
or sorghum. If siloed alone, they should he very well matured 
and thoroughly packed. Mixed in proportion of one part cow peas 



♦Colorado Bulletin No. 8. 



168 CROPS FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONS. 

and three or four parts of corn or sorghum, they keep better 
and make a more balanced feed than the corn or sorghum alone. 
The cow peas ma.y be planted in the same row with these crops 
and gathered with a harvester or they may be planted alone and 
mowed. In the latter case they should be mixed by placing the 
cow peas or alfalfa on top of the corn while entering the silage 
cutter. The cow peas may be foiked from an extra Avagon, in any 
desired proportion, usuallj' one part to two, three or four parts 
of corn or sorghum. Prof. Reed says that "it is very desirable 
to put in the first crop of alfalfa in case it get rained on, but if 
alfalfa can be put up for hay it will be worth more in that form 
than in silage. Alfalfa hay has a market value and there is a 
growing demand for same, and since the crops such as kafir, 
sweet sorghum, and corn fodder have no market value, they 
should best be made into silage instead. Alfalfa hay when put 
in the silo alone will not keep for a great length of time. The 
exact reason for this has not been determined. Alfalfa silage 
that was in the silo for two years at the Kansas State Agri- 
cultural College, became very dark, and when it came in con- 
tact with the air had a very offensive odor. Cattle would eat a 
little of it, but not enough to count it as a good feed. If it be- 
comts necessary to put the first crop of alfalfa in the silo, ar- 
rangements should be made to feed it out within a few months 
after it is put up." 

The Canada field pea, so extensively grown in the San Luis 
Valley of Colorado and in other sections of the southwest, shows 
an analysis only slightly less than the cow pea, and it exceeds 
corn silage in "ichness. The field pea, like alfalfa, should be 
siloed when mature enough for hay, and should be finely cut and 
thoroughly packed in the silo. 

The Spineless Cactus in the warrr arid regions of the South- 
west is capable of verj' large yields. It is claimed that the leaves 
or slabs as a fodder make superior beef and they are a good 
food for milch cows; the cactus is very rich in sodium, potash 
and magnesia, the principal salts found in milk. It is a green, 
fresh and delicious stock food throughout the entire year. For 
best results, it should be run through a feed cutter. Mr. Luther 
Burbank used an "Ohio" cutter in demonstrating this cactus at 
the California State Fair recently. 



WASHINGTON CROPS. 169 

The prickly pear, both spiny and tliornless, are grown along 
the coast and interior valleys of California and in the warmer 
parts of Arizona and southern Texas. As with cactus, best feed- 
ing results ai'e produced by running through a fted cutter and 
fed in combination with dry roughage. 

Mr. David Griffiths, Government Agriculturist at Washington, 
says: "A number of attempts have been made to make silage 
of prickly pear, but so far as I am aware none of thtm have been 
entirely successful. The material is very succulent and can be 
fed in the green, succulent state any day of the year, and the 
necessity of making it into silage is not the same as that for 
ordinary crops which perish at the close of the season. It is a 
warm country crop and can be fed at any time of the year without 
making it into silage." 

In Washington, says Prof. Nystrom of the Pullman Station, 
"while corn is the best crop, we have been getting good success 
by using peas and oats, vetch and oats, barley and peas and 
clover. In some localities also alfalfa has been put in whole, and 
good silage has resulted. We advocate the use of the corn 
wherever it will grow; a large part of this state is not flitted for 
the growing of corn, but will grow Canada field peas and oats. 
In such localities we advocate this crop for the silo. Most of the 
crops that are used in a silo have been cut up, that is, run through 
an ensilage cutter, and good silage has resulted." Alfalfa, kale, 
corn and clover, barley and vetch, and clover and rye grass are 
other crops mentioned in Bulletin No. 46 from the Pullman Sta- 
tion, as being used in that state. 

Silage Crops in the South. 

Japanese cane has been found best adapted for growing 
throughout Florida, Louisiana and the southern parts of Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi and Texas, or in any sections in which the 
velvet bean will mature seed. This will be up to 200 or 250 
miles north of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Japanese cane makes a good silage. It keeps well and is 
relished by cattle. It has been used in feeding experiments with 
the dairy herd at the Florida station with quite satisfactory re- 
sults. The cost of silage from this crop should not exceed 



170 SILAGE CROPS IN THE SOUTH. 

$1.75 or $2.00 per ton. It is rich in carbohydrates, but poor in 
protein, and care should, therefore, be talten to balance the ration 
when feeding. 

Prof. Scott of the Florida Station at Gainesville, says: "Per- 
haps the best silage crop that we grow here in Florida is the 
Japanese cane. This produces a heavier tonnage per acre than 
any other crop ihat we can grow and at the same time is prac- 
ticallj' double that which can be secured from sorghum or corn. 
Then, too, Japanese cane is a much cheaper crop to produce 
than sorghum or corn, due to the fact that one planting of cane 
will last for fifteen or twenty years, while sorghum or corn must 
be planted every year. * * * The Japanese cane stalks should 
be well matured before being harvested, and this is not likely to 
occur until early in November. If Japanese cane is cut and put 
in the silo during September, very unsatisfactory results are likely 
to occur, and what silage may be saved will be of very poor 
quality, due to the fact that at this time of the year there is very 
little feeding value in the Japanese cane, since the formation 
of sugar does not take place until the crop begins to mature, and 
the nearer we can let it stand in the field until frost, the higher 
the percentage of sugar in the stalks. 

"A great many have been disappointed in using sorghum for 
silage. However, I believe that 95 per cent of the failures with 
sorghum silage has bBen due to the fact that the sorghum 
was put in the silo before it was fully matured. To make good 
silage the sorghum must be fully matured, that is, the seed 
should be in the hard dough stage. 

"Without question sorghum makes good silage. I have no 
doubt that it is as good as corn, ton for ton. Whether one should 
grow sorghum or corn for silage will depend somewhat on local 
conditions. Our soil conditions vary in all sections of the state. 
Some of our soils are not the best for the growing of heavy crops 
of corn. On this class of land sorghum produces a much heavier 
tonnage per acre. Therefore it is advisable to grow sorghum. On 
the better corn lands it is just possible that as heavy crops of 
com can be produced. Where it is possible to grow a heavier 
tonnage of corn per acre it will no doubt be the better crop to 
grow." 

Prof. Milton P. Jarnagin of the Georgia Agricultural College 



SILAGE CROPS IN THE SOUTH. 171 

writes us as follows: "For a number of reasons the production 
of silage is one of the most important phases of stock husbandry 
in the South. There has been an ill-founded opinion that since 
there is such a long growing season in the cotton section, silage is 
not of so much importance as in some of the northern sections. 
From experimental work we believe that it is impossible to pro- 
duce 100 pounds of beef or a gallon of milk as economically 
without silage as can be done with it. 

"Alternate rows of sorghum and corn will give us from three 
to five tons of silage per acre depending on the quality of the 
land, more than can be secured from corn alone. We believe that 
sorghum and corn silage is equal to corn silage alone, though it 
is vastly superior to all sorghum silage. Aside from the increased 
tonnage, sorghum is much more drought resistant than corn. 
Even in extremely dry weather, we have never failed to get a 
fairly satisfactory yield of silage where sorghum constituted one- 
half of the crop. In addition to this, the sorghum carries con- 
siderable juice so that we are able to allow the corn to stand 
until it has developed the maximum amount of nutrients before 
harvesting. The sorghum then gathers sufficient moisture and 
weight to insure good packing and keeping. 

"We have gotten better results from the use of Red Head 
sorghum than any of the other varieties. It has a thick, heavy 
stalk, with heavy foliage, and at the same time it has the ability 
to stand up better than most other varieties. Any heavy stalk 
and vigorous growing variety of corn is satisfactory. During the 
past two years we have gotten better results from Cocke's Prolific 
than from Virginia ensilage corn on the College Farm." 

For Alabama, Mr. S. I. Bechdel, dairyman at the Experiment 
Station at Auburn, recommends the use of a good prolific corn in 
connection with pea-vines or soy beans, although sorghum Is now 
used to a considerable extent throughout the state. Some of the 
farmers in the southern part of the state are enthusiastic over 
the use of sorghum as a silage crop because it enables them to 
get some other crop off earlier in the spring and get sorghum 
in in time to make silage before frost. 

Corn and sorghum in about equal parts are recommended in 
Louisiana for good silage. Planting corn or sorghum during the 
latter half of June on land from which oats or other crops have 



172 SILAGE CROPS IN THE SOUTH. 

already been taken will produce from 5 to 15 tons an acre for 
the silo. 

Sugar cane tops and green leaves made excellent silage at 
the Baton Rouge Station according to Bulletin No. 145. Analysis 
showed that a ton of cane top silage carries the equivalent of 
more feed units (protein, fat and carbohydrate) than 5% bushels 
of corn. Out of an 18 ton yield from an acre, hauled to the mill, 
about six tons would be tops and leaves. Four tons of this would 
be suitable for silage, with feed units equal to 22 bushels of corn. 
The gain in making silage of this is very evident. Furthermore, 
this four tons of tops and leaves, if burned, would destroy $3.75 
worth of nitrogen, whereas if siloed and fed to live stock a large 
part of it would go back to the soil. 

Frof. Staples, of the Experiment Station at Baton Rouge, 
writes regarding Louisiana conditions as follows: "The best and 
most profitable crops that we can grow in this state for silage 
are corn, soy beans, peas and sorghum. The corn and soy beans 
make the best combination, as the corn is rather dry at some 
seasons and the soy beans being rather too moist supply the 
necessary amount of moisture to make the corn and beans to- 
gether a most excellent combination of feed-stuffs for filling the 
silo. 

"The peas are also very good for combination with the corn, 
but are somewhat troublesome to handle on account of the vines 
entangling around the corn stalk and making it very hard to 
handle, both by the binder when cutting and by the man hauling 
and feeding the silage cutter. Sorghum is very good feed when 
used as silage, but does not contain as large a per cent of feeding 
nutrients as the above mentioned crops." 



CHAPTER IX. 

now TO ]\IAKE SILAGE. 
Filling the Silo. 

A. Indian Corn. — As previously stated, corn should be left in 
the field before cutting until it has passed through the dough 
stage, i. e., when the kernels are well dented or glazed, in case 
of flint varieties. Where very large silos are filled and in cases 
of extreme dry weather when the corn is fast drying up, it will 
be well to begin filling the silo a little before it has reached this 
stage, as the greater portion of the com would otherwise be apt 
to be too dry. There is, however, less danger in this respect 
now than formerly, on account of our modern deep silos, and be- 
cause we have found that water applied directly to the fodder in 
the silo acts in the same way as water in the fodder, and keeps 
the fermentations in the silo in check and in the right track. 

Cutting the Corn in the Field. — The cutting of com for the 
silo is usually on small farms done by hand by means of a corn 
knife. Many farmers have been using self-raking and binding 
corn harvesters for this purpose, while others report good success 
with a sled or platform cutter. If the corn stands up well, and 
is not of a very large variety, the end sought may be reached in 
a satisfactory manner by either of these methods. If, on the 
other hand, much of the com is down, hand cutting is to be 
preferred. A number of different makes of corn harvesters and 
corn cutters are now on the market; and it is very likely that 
hand-cutting of fodder corn will be largely done away with in 
years to come, at least on large farms, indeed, it looks as if the 
day of the com knife was passing away, and as if this implement 
will soon be relegated to obscurity with the sickle of our fathers' 
time. 

If a corn harvester is used, it will be found to be a great ad- 
vantage to have the bundles made what seems rather small. It 
will take a little more twine, but the loaders, the haulers, the 
unloaders, and even the Silage Cutter itself will handle much more 
corn in a day if the bundles are small and light, and it will be 
found to be economy to see that this is done. 

173 



17 1 



HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 



Corn cutters have been made by various manufacturers of 
late years and have proved quite satisfactory, althoug-h they re- 
quire more hand labor than the corn harvesters and do not leave 
the corn tied up and in as convenient shape for loading on the 
wagons as these do. It is also necessary to use care with the 
sledge type of corn cutter, as numerous cases are on record where 
both men and horses have been injured by getting in front of 
the knives, which project from the sides. 




Fig. 52. — Low-down rack for hauling fodder corn. 



A low down rack for hauling corn from the field is shown in 
the accompanying illustration (Fig. 52). It has been used for 
some years past at the Wisconsin Station, and is a great con- 
venience in handling corn, saving both labor and time. These 
racks not only dispense with a man upon the wagon when 
loading, but they matei'ially lessen the labor of the man who 
takes the corn from the ground, for it is only the top of the load 
which needs to be raised shoulder-high; again, when it comes to 
unloading, the man can stand on the floor or ground and simply 
draw the corn toward him and lay it upon the table of the 
cutter, without stooping over and without raising the corn up to 
again throw it down. A plank that can easily be hitched on 
behind the truck will prove convenient for loading, so that the 
loader can pick up his armful and, walking up the plank, can 
drop it without much exertion. 

If wilted fodder corn is to be siloed it should be shocked in 
the field to protect it as much as possible from rain before haul- 
ing it to the cutter. 



"EARS AND ALL." 175 

Siloing Corn, "Ears and All." 

The best practice in putting corn into the silo is to silo the 
corn plant, "ears and all," without previously husking it. If the 
ear corn is not needed for hogs and horses or for seed purposes, 
this practice is in the line of economy, as it saves the expense of 
husking, cribbing, shelling and grinding the ear corn. The possi- 
ble los.? of food materials sustained in siloing the ear corn speaks 
against the practice, but this is very small, and more than coun- 
terbalanced by the advantages gained by this method of pro- 
cedure. In proof of this statement we will refer to an extended 
feeding trial with milch cows, conducted by Professor Woll at 
the Wisconsin Station in 1891. 

Corresponding rows of a large corn field were siloed, "ears 
and all," and without ears, the ears belonging to the latter lot 
being carefully saved and air-dried. The total yield of silage 
with ears in it (whole-corn gilage) was 59,495 pounds; of silage 
without ears (stover silage) 34,496 pounds, and of ear corn, 10,511 
pounds. The dry matter content of the lots obtained by the two 
methods of treatment was, in whole-corn silage, 19,950 pounds; 
in stover silage, 9,484 pounds, and in ear corn, 9,122 pounds, or 
18,606 pounds of dry matter in the stover silage and ear corn 
combined. This shows a loss of 1,344 pounds of dry matter, or 
nearly 7 per cent, sustained by handling the fodder and ear corn 
separately instead of siloing the corn "ears and all." 

In feeding the two kinds of .silage against each other, adding 
the dry earn corn to the stover silage, it was found that seven- 
teen tons of whole-corn silage fed to sixteen cows produced some- 
what better results than fourteen tons of stover silage, and more 
than two tons of dry ear com, both kinds of silage having been 
supplemented by the same quantities of hay and grain feed. The 
yield of milk from the cows was 4 per cent higher on the whole 
corn silage ration than on the stover silage ration, and the yield 
of fat was 6.9 per cent higher on the same ration. It would seem 
then that the cheapest and best way of preserving the-corn crop 
for feeding purposes, at least in ca.?e of milch cows, is to fill it 
directly into the silo; the greater portion of the corn may be cut 
and siloed when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage, and the 
corn plat which is to furnish ear corn may be left in the field 



176 



HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 



until the corn is fully matured, when it may be husked, and the 
stalks and leaves may be filled into the silo on top of the corn 
siloed "ears and all." This will then need some heavy weighting 
or one or two applications of water on top of the corn, to insure 
a good quality of silage from the dry stalks. (See pages 175 
and 185.) 

An experiment similar to the preceding one, conducted at the 
Vermont Station, in which the product from six acres of land 
was fed to dairy cows, gave similar results. We are justified in 
concluding, therefore, that husking, shelling, and grinding the corn 
(processes that may cost more than a quarter of the market 
value of the meal) are labor and expense more than wasted, since 
the cows do better on the corn siloed "ears and all" than on that 
siloed after the ears were picked off and fed ground with it. 

Table XIII. — Yield of Digestible Matter in Corn. 



CONSTITUENT 


YIELD PER ACRE 




Ears 


stover 


Total Crop 


Protein 


Pounds. 
244 
2,301 
125 


Pounds. 

83 

1,473 

22 


Pounds. 
327 


Carbohydrates 


3,774 


Fat 


147 






Total ". 


2,670 


1,578 


4,248 







The difference in the feeding value of the corn plant when 
siloed with and without ears is well illustrated in Table XIII. pre- 
sented by the Pennsylvania State College, which shows that 63 
per cent, of the digestible food materials present in the corn plant 
are found in the ears and 37 per cent, in the stover. 



The Filling Process. 

The corn, having been hauled from the field to the silo, has 
still to be reduced to a fine, homogeneous mass, so that it will 
pack well in the silo and will be convenient for feeding. 

In order to do this, the whole of the corn, ea,rs and all, may be 
run through a Silver's "Ohio" Silage Cutter. 



THE FILLING PROCESS. 177 

The corn is unloaded on the self-feed table of the cutter and 
run through the machine, after which the carrier or blower ele- 
vates it and delivers it into the silo. 

By far the easiest method of unloading is to drive across the 
end of the traveling feed table as shown in the illustration Fig. 
55. This brings the bundles into proper position for the feeder 
to simply slide them endwise onto the feed table requiring little 
or no lifting. By starting at the front of load and moving up as 
the unloading proceeds one man can handle the work very much 
quicker in this way and with far less labor, and two men can 
also work to advantage if desired. This method of feeding should 
be practiced wherever the setting of cutter or engine permits 
driving the machine from the opposite or front end. Its labor- 
saving advantages will be readily seen when contrasted with the 
plan of feeding from the side of cutter as shown in Fig. 49, page 
107, where the entire weight of each load, perhaps one to two 
tons, is lifted waist-high and thrown forward. 

To secure best results from the standpoint of both men and 
equipment, regular steady feeding should be practiced at all 
times. A little judgment used at this point in properly lapping 
the bundles so as to keep up a constant and uniform supply will 
not only produce larger capacity but will relieve the heavy uneven 
strain to which a silage cutter is usually subjected. 




Fig. 55. — Showing one of easiest methods of unloading corn at 
cutter. 



178 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

The length of cutting practiced differs somewhat with different 
farmers and with the variety of corn to be siloed. Care should 
be taken in this respect, however, for the length of cut has much 
to do with the quality of the silage. Experience has demonstrated 
that the half inch cut, or even shorter, gives most- satisfactory 
results. The corn will pack and settle better in the silo, the finer 
It is cut, thus better excluding the air and at the same time in- 
creasing the capacity of the silo, some say 20 to 25 per cent. 
Cattle will also eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut fine, and the 
majority of farmers filling silos now practice such cutting. 

The cut ensilage should be directed to the outer edge of the 
silo at all times, thus keeping it high and packing it there, letting 
the center take care of itself. The weight of the silage packs it 
in the center. 

If the corn is siloed "ears and all," it is necessary to keep 
a man or boy in the silo while it is being flUed, to level the sur- 
face and tramp down the sides and corners; if left to itself, the 
heavier pieces of ears will be thrown farthest away and the light 
leaves and tops will all come nearest the discharge; as a result 
the corn will not settle evenly, and the different layers of silage 
will have a different feeding value. Several simple devices, such 
as funnel-shaped hoppers, ad.iustable board suspended from roof, 
etc., will suggest themselves for receiving the silage from the car- 
rier and directing it where desired in the silo. With the blower 
machines, the new flexible silo tube, shown in the back of this 
book, is a most happy solution of an otherwise disagreeable job. 
At the same time it insures perfectly equal distribution of the cut 
feed; the leaves, moisture and heavier parts being always uni- 
formly mixed as cut. 

The Proper Distribution of the Cut Material in the Silo. 

The proper distribution of the cut corn after it has been ele- 
vated or blown into the silo is a matter which should have proper 
attention at the time of filling. If the cut material is allowed to 
drop all in one place and then have no further attention the con- 
stant falling of the material in one place will tend to make that 
portion solid while the outside will not be so and besides the 
pieces of ears and heavier portions will continually roll to the 
outside. As a result the silage cannot settle evenly, and good 



SIZE OF CUTTER REQUIRED. 179 

results will not follow. As the filling progresses, the cut material 
should be leveled off and the common and most successful prac- 
tice is to keep the material higher at the sides than at the center 
and do all the tramping at and close to the sides, where the fric- 
tion of the walls tends to prevent as rapid settling as takes place 
at the center. In modern deep silos, the weight of the silage 
accomplishes more than would any amount of tramping, and all 
that is necessary, is to see that the cut material is rather evenly 
distributed, for better results in feeding, and to assist the settling 
by some tramping at the sides. With the new silo tube, this 
distribution is really reduced to the mere guiding of the mouth of 
the tube by hand. 

Tramping. 

Always bear in inind that the more thoroughly the air is ex- 
cluded, the better will be the silage. This is accomplished by 
adding water if the crop is over ripe and by a thorough tramp- 
ing as the silo is being filled. Pay especial attention to the edges. 
If you have spoiled silage around the edges of a good silo it is be- 
cause it was not tramped sufficiently at this point. Keep one or 
two men tramping continually at the extreme edges close to the 
walls of the silo. A little more trouble and expense in proper 
tramping will save much spoiled silage. Tramp the edges. 



Size of Cutter and Power Required- 

The cutter used in filling the silo should have ample capacity 
to give satisfaction and do the work rapidly; a rather large cut- 
ter is therefore better than a cutter that is barely large enough. 
The size required depends on the rapidity with which it is desired 
to fill the silo and on the power at hand. Where a steam engine 
is available it is the cheapest power for filling large silos, as the 
work can then be finished very rapidly. For small farms and 
silos, the gasoline engine has rapidly replaced the two or three 
horse tread powers formerly popular for carrier machines, and 
the gasoline tractoi's of 12 to 25 horse are now used to a consid- 
erable extent for blower machines. Ordinary steam threshing 
engines will still be found most dependable, however. The filling 
may be done as rapidly as possible, or may be done slowly, and 



180 HO^A' TO MAKE SILAGE. 

no harm will result, if for any reason the work be interrupted for 
some time. More silage can be put Into a silo with slow, than 
with rapid filling. If the farmer owns his own machine, he can, 
of coui'se, fill his silo and then refill after the silage has settled, 
so that the silo will be nearly full after all settling has taken 
place. 

If, however, the farmer must depend on hiring an outfit, he 
will wish to do the filling as rapidly as possible, as a matter of 
economy, and will, therefore, seek the largest possible capacity. 

It is important to be able to get an outfit when it is needed. 
An eai'ly frost or a spell of hot, dry weather may so affect the 
crop that it is necessary to fill the silo several days before the 
usual time. For this reason a man should own his own cutter 
and engine, especially if he cuts enough silage each year to war- 
rant the expenditure. Usually it is easier to hire an engine than 
a cutter. Many find it wise, therefore, to buy the latter and de- 
pend on being able to rent the former when it is needed. Where 
individual ownership is not possible, the next best move is for 
two or three neighbors to purchase the necessary machinery in 
partnership. 

The size of the cutter to purchase depends also on how it is 
to be used. For private use, w'hen the silo is not large, a small 
silo filler will suffice;, for a neighborhood machine where two or 
three fai'mers combine, a larger size will be desirable; in either 
case if the silos are of large size or the cvitter is to be used for 
jobbing work at other farms the larger sizes will certainly prove 
more profitable. In some sections, community cutters have be- 
come popular where from eight to fifteen farmers purchase com- 
plete equipment for their own use. With fifteen or twenty men 
and several teams on the job there is always friendly rivalry as 
to the size of loads, speed in unloading, etc., and periodic efforts 
to choke or stall the cutter are sure to result. It's a special 
feature of the game that should be considered and only the 
largest capacity cutter should be selected in such cases if supreme 
satisfaction is desired. 

These conditions have created a demand for various sizes of 
cutters, and to meet this demand Silver's "Ohio" Silage Cut- 
ters are made in six sizes, Nos. 11, 12, 15, 17, 19 and 22 (the 
number of the machine indicates the length of knives and width 



BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC ELEVATORS. 181 

of throat), and equipped with metal bucket elevators or blower 
elevators as desired, adaptable to any height of silo. The blower 
machines require more power to operate successfully than do the 
carrier machines, although the largest sizes can be run by an 
ordinary threshing engine. The traveling feed table and the bull 
dog grip feed rolls are valuable features and practically do away 
with the labor of feeding the heavy green corn, besides increasing 
the capacity of the machines about one-third, on account of its 
being so much easier to get a large amount of material past the 
feed rolls. These machines have been on the market for upwards 
of twenty-flve years, and have been brought to a wonderful state 
of perfection. For durability, ease and reliability of operation, 
capacity and general utility, they are doubtless the most practical 
means of filling the silo. 

The Metal Bucket Elevator is the older style of elevator. It 
delivers the cut silage corn into the silo through a window or 
opening at the top and must be longer than the silo is high as 
it is necessary to run the carrier at somewhat of an angle. The 
length of the carrier required may be obtained by adding about 40 
per cent, to the perpendicular height from the ground to the win- 
dow; thus for a 20 ft. silo a 28 ft. carrier is required, and for a 
30 ft. silo, about 42 ft. of carrier will be necessary. 

The Metal Bucket Elevators for Silver's "Ohio" Silage Cutters 
are made both straight away and with swivel base, which en- 
ables the operator to set the cutter in the desired position, and 
as the swivel base gives the carrier a range of adjustment ex- 
tending over nearly a half circle, the carrier can be run directly 
to the window, or in the case of two silos setting side by side, 
both can be filled with one setting of the cutter. 

The Nos. 15, 17 and 19 Silver's "Ohio" Silage Cutters are the 
sizes most in use by farmers, stockmen and dairymen. The 
traveling feed table, first adopted by the "Ohio," which is long 
enough to receive a bundle of corn is a most valuable feature 
and has become almost universal on the "Ohio" machines used 
for silo filling. It decreases the labor of feeding and makes any 
size of machine about equal in capacity to the next size larger 
without it. 

The newer and more modern method of elevating fodder in 
filling silos, is the use of the Blower Elevator which blows the 



182 



HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 



cut fodder into the silo through a continuous pipe. Blower Ele- 
vators (see illustration of Silver's "Ohio" Blower Cutter, Fig. 53) 
have been in use to an increasing extent for several years, and 
today there is absolutely no doubt as to their superiority for ele- 
vating the material. Where sufficient power is available there is 
no difficulty in elevating the cut fodder into the highest silos. 

Although the Blower Machines require somewhat more power 
than the old stj'le Carrier, they have numerous advantages over 
the latter, and the majority of machines now being sold are 
equipped with Blowers. We mention below some of the features 
that have served to bring Silver's "Ohio" Monarch Blowers to the 
notice and favor of farmers and dairymen so rapidly. 

The Blower Machine is quickly set up, taken down or moved, 
as all that is necessary is to remove the pipe, (which is in sec- 




Fig. 53. — Shows Silver's No. 19 "uhio" Monarch Self Feeder Blower 
Silage Cutter filling a group of five silos, owned by S. M. 
Shoemaker, Burnside, P. O., Eccleston, Md. The machine had 
just completed storing 1700 tons of silage. 



BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC ELEVATORS. 183 

tions of various lengths from four to ten feet as desired), which 
requires but a few moments. This operation requires but little 
time as compared with that occupied in setting up or taking apart 
the chain elevator. 

The Blower Machine is clean in operation, placing all of the 
corn in the silo and there is no litter around the. machine when 
the filling is finished. 

The action of the fan paddles is such that the corn is made 
much finer and it therefore packs closer in the silo, thus enabling 
more fodder to be stored in the silo; the corn is all knocked off 
of the pieces of cobs and distributed through the cut fodder better, 
and the pieces of the heavy butts and joints are also split and 
knocked to pieces, all of which reduces the silage to a fine condi- 
tion so that it is eaten up cleaner by the stock. 

The fan or blower device is also likely to be more durable 
than the cha,in elevator. 

The "Ohio" direct drive construction with pulley, knife cylin- 
der and fan all on main shaft, is unique among silage cutters and 
is thoroughljr covered by patents. Its large fan permits full 
capacity at low speed so that it never explodes or blows up. 
The feeding mechanism can be started, stopped or reversed 
with a single lever. The reverse is entirely by wood friction. 
There is not the slightest strain on the machine; not a gear tooth 
changes mesh. The machine cuts all kinds of fodder from V4, to 4 
inch lengths as desired, with a pei'fectly adjusted shear cut. 

Manj' have been skeptical as to the ability of the Blower to 
elevate the material as rapidly as the "Ohio" Machines cut it. 
This proposition, however, has been proven entirely feasible and 
successful, and there positively need be no fear on this point 
if the following points are kept in mind. 

The machine must be run at the proper speed as recommended 
by the manufacturers. A fan can only create a sufficient blast 
by running fast enough to force the air through the pipe at 
the rate of nine or ten thousand feet per minute. Green corn 
is heavy stuff and requires a strong current of air to carry it 
through 50 or 40 feet of pipe at the rate of 10 to 30 tons per 
hour. It will be seen, therefore, that unless proper speed be 
maintained there will be no elevation of the material whatever. 
If the power at hand is not sufficient to maintain full speed when 



184 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

the cutters are fed to full capacity, all that is necessary is to 
feed the machine accordingly, in other words, to cut down the 
capacity to the point where full speed can be maintained, as is 
necessary with other kinds of machinery, such as threshing 
machines, grinding mills, etc. 

In setting a* Blower Machine it is necessary to have the 
pipe as nearly perpendicular as possible, so that the current of 
.air within the pipe will lift the material. This is especially 
true where the pipe is long, say 20 feet or more, because the 
green fodder being heavy will settle down on to the lower side 
•of the pipe, if this has much slant, and the wind blast will pass 
over the fodder, thus allowing it to lodge, whereas if the pipe be 
perpendicular, or nearly so, no stoppage will occur. It is also 
necessary to see that full speed is attained before beginning to 
teed the machine, and also to stop the feeding while the machine 
is in full motion so that the Blower will have an opportunity 
ito clear itself before shutting off the power. 

There must be ample vent in the silo to prevent back pres- 
T3irre, as the tremendous volume of air forced into the silo with 
the cut fodder must have some means of escape. 

If these few points are kept in mind, there can be no possible 
'doubt as to the successful operation of the Blower Elevator; 
.and, as previously stated, there is absolutely no doubt as to their 
:superiority for elevating silage. Scores of Silver's "Ohio" Blower 
Machines are in successful use in all parts of the country. 

(N. B. At the end of .this volume will be found illustrations 
and descriptions of several sizes and styles of Silver's "Ohio" 
Silage Cutters, which the reader can refer to, in addition to the 
illustration given here.) 

Danger from Carbonic-Acid Poisoning in Silos. — As soon as 
the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbonic-acid gas is evolved, 
and if the silo is shut up tight the gas will gradually accumulate 
directly above the fodder, since it is heavier than air and does 
not mix with it under the conditions given. If a man or an 
animal goes down into this atmosphere, there is great danger of 
asphyxiation, as is the case under similar conditions in a deep 
"Cistern or well. Poisoning cases from this cause have occurred 
in filling silos where the filling has been interrupted for one or 
more days, and men have then gone into the silo to tramp 



COVERING THE SILOED FODDER. 185- 

down the cut. corn. If the doors above the siloed mass are left 
open when the filling is stopped, and the silo thus ventilated, 
carbonic acid poisoning cannot take place, since the gas will 
then slowly diffuse into the air. Carbonic acid being without odor 
or color, to all appearances like ordinary air, it cannot be directly 
observed, but may be readily detected by means of a lighted lan- 
tern or candle. If the light goes out when lowered into the sila 
there is an accumulation of carbonic acid in It, and a person 
should open feed doors and fan the air in the silo before going 
down into it. 

After the silage is made and the temperature in the silo has 
gone down considerably, there is no further evolution of car- 
bonic acid, and therefore no danger in entering the silo even if 
this has been shut up tight. The maximum evolution of carbonic 
acid, and consequentlj' the danger of carbonic-acid poisoning 
comes during or directly after the filling of the silo. 

Covering' the Siloed Fodder. 

Many devices for covering the siloed fodder have been recom- 
mended and tried, with varying success. The original method 
was to put boards on top of the fodder, and to weight them 
heavily by means of a foot layer of dirt or sand, or with stone. 
The weighting having later on been done away with, lighttr ma- 
terial, as straw, hay, sawdust, etc., was substituted for the 
stone or sand. Building paper v/as often placed over the fodder, 
and boards on top of the paper. There is no special advantage 
derived from the use of building-paper, and it is now never 
used. Many farmers run some corn stalks, or green husked 
fodder, through the cutter after the fodder is all in. In the South, 
cotton-seed hulls are easily obtained, and form a cheap and most 
efficient cover. 

None of these materials or any other recommend, d for the 
purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost layer of silage, 
some four to six inches of the top layer being usually spoilt. 
Occasionally this spoilt silage may not be so bad but that cattle 
or hogs will eat it up nearly clean, but it is at best very poor 
food and should not be used by any farmer who cares for the 
quality of his products. The wet or green materials are better 



186 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

for cover than dry substances, since they prevent evaporation 
of water from the top layer; when this is dry air will be ad- 
mitted to the fodder below, thus making it possible for putre- 
factive bacteria and molds to continue the destructive work 
begun by the fermentation bacteria, and causing more of the 
silage to spoil. 

Silage will settle several feet in an ordinary silo. If possible, 
after filling the silo full, let it settle for three or four days, and 
then fill again to the top, wetting the top on each occasion with 
about one and one-half gallons of water to every square foot 
of surface. After your silo has been filled and the top thoroughly 
wet, leave it alone. Do not get on top of it, and do not dig down 
through the top to examine it. The more this is done, the more 
silage you will lose. 

Use of Water in Filling Silos. — During late years the practice 
of applying water to the fodder in the silo has been followed in 
a large number of cases. The surface is tramped thoroughly 
and a considei'able amount of water added. In applying the 
method at the Wisconsin Station, Prof. King, a few days after 
the completion of the filling of the silo, added water to the 
fodder corn at the rate of about ten pounds per square foot of 
surface, repeating the same process about ten days afterwards. 
By this method a stlckj^ almost impervious layer of rotten silage, 
a couple of inches thick, will form on the top, which will pre- 
vent evaporation of water from the corn below, and will pre- 
serve all but a few inches at the top. The method can be recom- 
mended in cases where the corn or clover goes into the silo in 
a rather dry condition, on account of drouth or extreme hot 
weather, so as not to pack svifflciently by its own weight. While 
weighting of the siloed fodder has long since been done away 
with, it may still prove advantageous to resort to it where very 
dry fodder is siloed, or in case of shallow silos. Under ordinary 
conditions neither weighting nor application of water should be 
necessary, but where the corn has become too mature and dried 
up, on account of drouth, or delay in building .the silo, it is a 
great relief to know that good silage can be made from such 
corn by an application of considerable water. Water is now 
generally added by running a stream into the blower as the 
cut corn is elevated into the silo or in the silo its.-lf after each 



FREEZING OF SILAGE. 187 

load or half day's run. Frosted corn can also be made into a 
good Quality of silage if a liberal amount of water is added as 
directed. 

There is only one way in which all of the silage can be pre- 
served intact, viz., by beginning to feed it within a few days 
after the silo has been filled. This method is now practiced by 
many farmers, especially dairymen, who in this manner supple- 
ment scant fall pastures. 

By beginning to feed at once from the silo, the siloing system 
is brought to perfection, provided the silo structure is air-tight, 
and constructed so as to admit of no unnecessary losses of 
nutrients. Under these conditions there is a very considerable 
saving of food materials over silage made in poorly constructed 
silos, or over field-cured shocked fodder corn, as we have already 
seen. 

Freezing of Silage. 

Freezing of silage has sometimes been a source of annoyance 
and loss to farmers in Northern states, and in the future, with 
the progress of the stave silo, we shall most likely hear more 
about frozen silage than we have in the past. As stated in the 
discussion of the stave silo, however, the freezing of silage must 
be considered an inconvenience rather than a positive detriment; 
when the silage is thawed out it is eaten with the same relish 
by stock as is silage that has never been frozen, and apparently 
with equally good results. If frozen silage is not fed out directly 
after thawed it will spoil and soon become unfit to be used for 
cattle food; thawed silage will spoil much sooner than ordinary 
silage that has not been frozen and thawed out. -There is no evi- 
dence that silage which has been frozen and slowly thawed out 
is less palatable or nutritious than silage of the same kind which 
has been kept free from frost. 

Frozen silage should be avoided, not because it is unwhole- 
some, but because it is too cold. The warmer the silage can be 
kept the more palatable it will be and the less energy will be 
required to raise it to the body temperature of the animals. 
Frozen silage also has a tendency to make the cows laxative, 
but not overmuch. It does not seem to bring down the milk 
flow as might be supposed. Sheep seem to be aff . cted more read- 



188 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

ily than cattle by eating It and they are also more susceptible to 
the effects of moldy or •spoiled silage. 

"Freezing of silage," says Iowa State College Bulletin No. 100, 
"is due to loss of heat; first, through the silo wall; and second, 
to the air in contact with the feeding surface. 

"It may be impartially said that, as far. as the prevention 
of freezing is concerned, the stave, stone, single wall brick and 
concrete silos are of about equal merit. 

"The second cause of freezing mentioned, that is, the loss of 
heat from the silage surface, Is too often the cause of unnecessary 
freezing. If air above the silage is confined, no serious loss of 
heat can possibly take place. When the top of the silo is open 
and a free circulation of air permitted, it is almost impossible 
to prevent the surface from freezing in severe weather. A per- 
sonal investigation of silos in cold weather proved conclusively 
that those provided with a tight roof did not contain nearly as 
much frozen silage as those left open." 

The difficulty of the freezing of the silage may be avoided by 
checking the ventilation in the silo and by leaving the door to 
the silo carefully closed in severe weather. If the top layer of 
silage freezes some of the warm silage may be mixed with the 
frozen silage an hour or two before feeding time, and all the 
silage will then be* found in good condition when fed out. A 
layer of straw may be kept as a cover over the silage; this will 
prevent it from freezing, and is easily cleared off when silage is 
to be taken out. 

Covering over the exposed surface of the silage with old 
■blankets or hanging a lantern in the silo are other methods of 
keeping out the frost. 

Silage from Frosted Com. 

Experiments were conducted at the Vermont Station in Octo- 
ber, 1906, with immature corn, mature com not frosted, and mature 
corn frosted hard or frozen and the leaves whitened. No ill 
results were noticeable in the butter product. It was found 
that "the effect of frosting corn, and still more of freezing it, 
appears very slightly to have been to depress its feeding value 



STEAMING SILAGE. 1S9 

■when made into silage." The testimony seemed in favor of run- 
ning- frost risks in order to gain a greater maturity, rather than 
to silo the immature product. 

Steamed Silage. 

While fermentation in silage causes a small unavoidable loss, 
it develops flavors and softens the plant tissue. Excessive fer- 
mentation causes high acid. Steam has been used with much 
success to check it in such cases, says Farmer's Bulletin No. 316. 
It is piped at the bottom and middle of the silo until the whole 
mass is hot. 

Steaming seems beneficial and silage so treated is considered 
much better than that which is not steamed. Stall fed animals 
have eaten from 50 to 75 lbs. of silage per day, but the safer 
method is to feed less than 50 lbs. p r day. 



CHAPTER X. 

HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

Silage IS eaten with a relish by all kinds of farm animals, 
dairy and beef cattle, horses, mules, sheep, goats, swine, and 
even poultry. It should never be fed as sole roughage to any 
one of these classes of stock, however, but always in connection 
with some dry roughage. The nearer maturity the corn is when 
cut for the silo the more silage may safely be fed at a time, but 
it is always well to avoid feeding it excessively. 

The silo should always be emptied from the top in horizontal 
layers, and the surface kept level, so as to expose as little silage 
as possible to the air. It should be fed out sufficiently rapidly 
to avoid spoiling of the silage; in ordinary northern winter 
weather a layer a couple of inches deep should be fed off daily. 

Silage for Milch Cows. 

Silage is par excellence a cow feed, says Prof. WoU in his 
Book on Silage. Since the introduction of the silo in this 
country, the dairymen, more than any other class of farmers, 
have been among the most enthusiastic siloists, and up to the 
present time a larger number of silos are found in dairy dis- 
tricts than in any other regions where animal husbandry is a 
prominent industry. As with other farm animals, cows fed 
silage should receive other roughage in the shape of corn stalks, 
hay, etc. The quantities of silage fed should not exceed forty, 
or at outside, fifty pounds per day per head. It is possible 
that a maximum allowance of only 25 or 30 pounds per head daily 
is to be preferred where the keeping quality of the milk is an 
important consideration, especially if the silage was made from 
somewhat immature corn. The silage may be given in one or 
two feeds daily, and, in case of milch cows always after milking, 
and not before or during same, as the peculiar silage odor may, 
in the latter case, reappear in the milk. (See below.) 

Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secretion of 
milk. Whtre winter dairying is practiced, cows will usually 

190 



KEEPS UP MIL,K FLOW. 191 

drop considerably In milk toward spring, if fed on dry feed, 
causing a loss of milk through the whole remaining portion of 
the lactation period. If silage is fed there will be no such marked 
decrease in the flow of milk before turning out to grass, and the 
cows will be able to keep up well in milk until late in summer. 




Fig. 54. — Silage Truck Designed for carting silage from the silo 
to the feeding alley. Smooth rounded corners inside. Saves 
time, labor and silage. 

The overhead carrier is also used to some extent for the same 
purpose. 

or early in the fall, when they are dried up prior to calving. Silage 
has a similar effect on the milk secretion as green fodder or 
pasture, and if made from well-matured corn, is more like these 
feeds than any other feed the farmer can produce. 

The feeding of silage to milch cows has sometimes been ob- 
jected to when the milk was intended for the manufacture of 
certain kinds of cheese, or of condensed milk, and there are in- 
stances where such factories have enjoined their patrons from 
feeding silage to their cows. When the latter is properly pre- 
pared and properly fed, there can be no foundation whatever for 
this injunction; it has been repeatedly demonstrated that Swiss 
cheese of superior quality can be made from the milk of silage- 
fed cows, and condensing factories whose patrons are feeding 
silage have been able to manufacture a superior product. The 
quality of the silage made during the first dozen years of silo 



192 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

experience in this country was very poor, being sour and often 
spoilt in large quantities, and, what may have been still more 
important, it was sometimes fed in an injudicious manner, cattle 
being made to subsist on this feed as sole roughage. Under these 
conditions it is only natural that the quality of the milk should 
be impaired, and that manufacturers preferred to entirely pro- 
hibit the use of it rather than to teach their patrons to follow 
proper methods in the making and feeding of silage. There is 
an abundance of evidence at hand showing that good silage fed 
in moderate quantities will produce an excellent quality of both 
butter and cheese. According to the testimony of butter experts, 
silage not only does not injure the flavor of butter, but better- 
flavored butter is produced by judicious silage feeding than can 
be made from dry feed. 

Silage in the production of "certified miik." — In answer to 
the question whether there is any objection made to the milk 
when the cows are fed silage, Mr. H. B. Gurler, the well-known 
Illinois dairyman, whose certified milk sent to the Paris Expo- 
sition in 1900, kept sweet for one month without having any 
preservatives added to it, and was awarded a gold medal, gave 
the following information: "No, there is not. I have had per- 
sons who knew I was feeding silage imagine they could taste it. 
I caught one of the leading Chicago doctors a while ago. He 
imagined that he could taste silage in the milk, and I was not 
feeding it at all. When I first went into the business I did not 
feed any silage to the cows- from which the certified milk was 
produced. I knew it was all right for butter making, as I had 
made butter from the milk of the cows fed with silage, and sent 
it to New York in competition with butter made from dry food, 
and it proved to be the finer butter of the two. The first winter 
I had samples sent down to my family in DeKalb from the stable 
where we fed silage and from the stable where we were making 
the certified milk for Chicago, and in which we fed no silage. I 
presume I made one hundred comparative tests that winter of the 
milk from these two stables. My wife and daughter could not tell 
the difference between the two samples. In the large majority of 
cases they would select the milk from the cows fed silage as the 
sweeter milk." 

It will serve a.s an illustration of the general use of silage 
among progressive dairymen in our country, to state that of 



SILAGE FOR "CERTIFIED MILK." 193 

one hundred farmers furnishing the feed rations fed to their 
dairy cows, in an investigation of tliis subject conducted by Prof. 
Woll in 1894, sixty-four were feeding silage to their stock, this 
feed being used a larger number of times than any other single 
cattle food, wheat bran only excepted. 

An interesting experiment as to the effect of silage on milk 
was conducted by the Illinois Station, where a herd of 40 cows 
was divided, one lot being fed 40 lbs. of silage a day, the other 
clover hay and grain. Samples of milk were submitted to 372 
persons for an opinion. Sixty per cent preferred the silage-fed 
milk, 29 per cent non-silage-fed milk, while 11 per cent had no 
choice. They were able to distinguish between the two kinds, 
but found nothing objectionable about either. Tho summary of 
the test was that when silage imparts a bad or disagreeable 
flavor to milk produced from it, almost invariably the cause is 
that the silage has not been fed properly, or that spoiled silage 
has been used. 

It has been contended that the acetic acid in silage has a 
tendency to make milk sour more quickly. A user of silage 
for 14 years took a gallon of milk from a cow fed silage for 42 
days and a gallon from another that had received no silage and 
set them side by side in a room having a temperature of 40 
degrees. Both gallons of milk began to sour at the same time. 

The combination in which corn silage will be used in feeding 
milch cows will depend a good deal on local conditions; it may be 
said in general that it should be supplemented by a fair pro- 
portion of nitrogenous feeds like clover hay, wheat bran, ground 
oats, linseed meal, gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, etc. As it may 
be of some help to our readers a number of balanced rations or 
such as are near enough balanced to produce good results at 
the pail, are presented below. 

Silag-e Rations for Milch Cows. 

No. 1. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 8 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; 
ground oats, 5 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs. 

No. 2. Corn silage, 50 lbs.; corn stalks, 10 lbs.; corn meal, 2 
lbs.-; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt sprouts, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 1 lb. 



194 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

No. 3. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover and timothy mixed, 10 lbs.; 
wheat shorts, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs.; corn and cob meal, 3 
lbs. 

No. 4. Corn silage, 20 lbs.; corn stalks, 10 lbs.; hay, 4 lbs.; 
wheat bran, 4 lbs.; gluten meal, 3 lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs. 

No. 5. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover hay, 10 lbs.; oat feed, 4 lbs.; 
com meal, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs. 

No. 6. Corn silage, 45 lbs.; corn stalks, 5 lbs.; oat straw, 5 lbs.; 
dried brewers' grains, 4 lbs.; wheat shorts, 4 lbs. 

No. 7. Com silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; corn meal, 3 lbs.; wheat 
bran, 4 lbs.; oats, 3 lbs. 

No. 8. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; corn stover, 8 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; 
gluten meal, 2 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs. 

No. 9. Corn silage, 20 lbs.; clover and timothy hay, 15 lbs.; com 
meal, 3 lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs.; cotton seed 
meal, 1 lb. 

No. 10. Clover silage, 25 lbs.; corn stover, 10 lbs.; hay, 5 lbs.; 
wheat shorts, 2 lbs.; oat feed, 4 lbs.; corn meal, 2 lbs. 

No. 11. Clover silage, 30 lbs.; dry fodder corn, 10 lbs.; oat straw, 
4 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt sprouts, 2 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs. 

No. 12. Clover silage, 40 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; roots, 20 lbs.; com 
meal, 4 lbs.; ground oats, 4 lbs. 

The preceding rations are only intended as approximate guides 
in feeding dairy cows. Every dairy farmer knows that there are 
hardly two cows that will act in exactly the same manner and 
will need exactly the same amount of feed. It is important, 
therefore, to adapt the quantities and kinds of feed given to the 
special needs of the different cows; one cow will fatten on corn 
meal, where another will be able to eat and make good use of 
two or three quarts of it. In the same way some cows will eat 
more roughage than others and do equally well as those that 
get more of the food in the form of more concentrated arid highly 
digestible feeding stuffs. The only safe rule to go by is to feed 
according to the needs of the different cows; to study each cow 
and find out how much food she can take care of without laying 
on flesh, and how she responds to the feeding of foods of dif- 
ferent character, like wheat bran and corn meal, for instance. 



SILAGE RATIONS FOR MILCH COWS. 195 

The specimen rations given in the preceding can, therefore, only 
be used to show tlie average amount of common feeds which a 
good dairy cow can take in and give proper returns for. 

The popularity of the silo with owners of dairy cattle has 
increased very greatly, says Prof. Plumb. Few owners of stock 
of this class, who have properly-built silos, and well preserved 
silage, would discard silage as an adjunct to feeding. Silage 
certainly promotes milk flow. One great argument in favor of its 
use lies in the cheapness of production per ton, and the ability 
to store and secure a palatable, nutritious food in weather con- 
ditions that would seriously injure hay or dry fodder. 

There is one important point that dairy farmers should bear 
in mind, viz., when the silo is first opened only a small feed 
should be given at first. In changing from grass or dry feed to 
silage, if a regular full ration is given, the silage will perhaps 
slightly affect the taste of the milk for a few milkings, and if 
the change is from dry feed it maj' cause too great activity of 
the bowels. 

Silage for Beef Cattle. 

Prof. Hfenry says in regard to the value of silage for fattening 
steers: "As with roots, silage makes the carcass watery and 
soft to the touch. Some have considered this a disadvantage, but 
is it not a desirable condition in the fattening steer? Corn and 
roughage produce a hard dry carcass, and corn burns out the 
digestive tract in the shortest possible time. With silage and 
roots, digestion certainly must be more nearly normal, and its 
profitable action longer continued. The tissues of the body are 
juicy, and the whole system must be in just that condition which 
permits rapid fattening." 

Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full grown 
ones, with the same restrictions and precautions as given for 
steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas Station suggests that 
corn silage is not a fit food for breeding bulls, unless fed a few 
pounds only as a relish; fed heavily on silage, bulls are said to 
lose virility and become slow and uncertain breeders. 

Fuller information on this subject is given in Chapter V of 
this book, entitled, "The Use of Silage in Beef Production." 



196 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 



Silage for Horses. 

Silage has been fed to horses and colts for a number of years 
with excellent results. These points should be kept in mind 
however: Never feed moldy silage; it is poisonous to horses. 
Avoid sour si'age niade from immature corn. Feed regularly, 
once or twice a day, starting in with a light feed and gradually 
Increasing as the animals become accustomed to the food. 

The succulence of silage produces as good an effect on horses 
in the winter months as do the fresh spring pastures. Some 
farmers feed it mixed with cut straw, two thirds of straw and 
one-third of silage, and feed all the horses will eat of this 
mixed feed. Some horses object to silage at first on account of 
its peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on top 
of the silage and feeding only very small amounts to begin with, 
they soon learn to eat and relish it. Other horses take it 
willingly from the beginning. Horses not working may be fed 
laiger quantities than work horses, but in neither case should 
the silage form more than a portion of the coarse feed given 
the horses. Silage-fed horses will look well and come out in the 
spring in better condition than when fed almost any other food. 

Professor Cook says in regard to silage as a horse food: 
"It has been suggested by even men of high scientific attainments 
that silage is pre-eminently the food for cattle and not for other 
farm stock. This is certainly a mistake. If we raise fall colts, 
which I find very profitable, then silage is just what we need, 
and will enable us to produce colts as excellent as though 
dropped in the spring. This gives us our brood mares in first- 
class trim for the hard summer's work. I find silage just as 
good for young colts and other horses." 

An extensive Michigan farmer and horse breeder gives his 
•experience in regard to silage for horses as follows: 

"Last year we had nearly two hundred horses, including 
Clydesdales, standard-bred trotters, and Shetland ponies. They 
were wintered entirely upon straw and corn silage, and this in 
face of the fact that I had read a long article in a prominent 
horse journal cautioning farmers from the use of silage, and 
citing instances where many animals had died, and brood mares 
bad aborted from the liberal use of corn silage. 



SILAGE FOR HORSES. 197 

"Desiring to test the matter to the fullest extent, our stallions 
and brood mares, as well as all the young stock, we fed two 
full rations of silage daily, and one liberal ration of wheat or 
oat straw. The result with our brood mares was most phenom- 
enal, for we now have to represent every mare that was in foal 
on the farm a weanling, strong and vigorous, and apparently 
right in every way, with only one exception, where the colt was 
lost by accident. Of course there may have been something in 
the season more favorable than usual, but this was the first 
year in my experience when every colt dropped on the farm was 
saved." 

The following experience as to the value of silage as a food 
for horses and other farm animals comes from the Ohio Station: 
"Our silo was planned and filled with special reference to our 
dairy stock, but after opening the silo we decided to try feeding 
the silage to our horses, calves and hogs. The result was 
eminently satisfactory. We did not find a cow, calf, horse, colt, 
or hog that refused to eat, or that did not eat it with apparent 
relish, not only for a few days, but for full two months. The 
horses were given one feed of twenty pounds each per day in 
place of the usual amoimt of hay, for the period above named, 
and it was certainly a benefit. Their appetites were sharpened, 
and the healthfulness of the food was further manifest in the 
new coat of hair which came with the usual spring shedding. 
The coat was glossy, the skin loose, and the general appearance 
was that of horses running upon pasture." 

Many letters have appeared in Breeders' Gazette on this sub- 
ject. An Iowa writer, A. L. Mason, states that he has fed 
silage to horses for seven winters with no injurious effects. He 
fed once a day, from 20 to 40 pounds according to size of horse 
and 10 pounds to suckling colts. Another Iowa writer, P. A. 
Huddlestum, after five years' feeding, to stallions, mares in 
foal and colts, reports excellent results. He says: "I am now 
wintering 20 draft brood mares outdoors and their ration is 20 
pounds silage once a day, five ears corn twice a day, and some 
tame hay in the rack. I have never seen any that looked better." 
Geo. McLeod, of Iowa, writes: "We" keep about 50 horses and all 
are fed silage. The work horses are each fed a bushel basketful 
and so is the Shire stallion. No bad effects. The boys are 
careful that no moldy silage goes to the horses." Another writer, 
B. D. R., says: "I am feeding 9 head, including a registered 



198 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

stallion, five colts of various ages and three work horses. I give 
each horse and colt a peck of silage a day." These writers with- 
out exception warn against the use of moldy silage. 

Mr. P. W. Moir, a well known Iowa breeder of pure bred 
horses, erected a large silo in 1911 for feeding horses exclusively. 
As to results he stated that "It has been very satisfactory, as I 
had the very choicest of silage. We fed it to the brood mareb, 
as well as the colts, and they did fine with it and came out in 
the spring looking good. Other neighbors around here feed it and 
I have heard of no bad results. I have broken up one of my 
pastures, as I can get along without the grass and I expect to 
have enough corn from this pasture to fill both silos." 

Silage for Mules.— What has been said about silage as a 
food for horses will most likely apply equally well to mules, 
although only very limited experience has so far been gained 
with silage for this class of farm animals. 

Results of a test made at the N. C. Experiment Station, 
Raleigh, N. C, showed "that work mules will eat 20 to 50 pounds 
of corn silage per day and when the ration is properly balanced 
by the use of other feed-stuffs that 2% to 3 lbs. of silage could be 
substituted for 1 lb. of clover hay or cow pea hay. Results show 
that silage and ear corn or silage or corn and cobmeal is not so 
satisfactory as silage and a grain ration higher in protein value 
such as bran, cottonseed meal or oilmeal." 

Silage for Sheep- 

Despite the popular conception that silage is more or less dan- 
gerous to feed to sheep, especially breeding ewes, its great value 
and entire safety has been demonstrated as a fact by long and 
careful tests at the experiment stations, notably at the Purdue 
Station. The evidence is conclusive that from the standpoints of 
palatability, succulence and economy no other feed can compare 
with good silage. Succulence, probably the most important ele- 
ment in the winter ration of the breeding ewe, is necessary to 
secure or maintain the freshness, vigor and health so desirable In 
the flock. 

Though good silage may be a safe and desirable feed, it does 
not follow that silage which is very acid, spoiled or decomposed. 



SILAGE FOR SHEEP. 199 

is not dangerous or even deadly in its effects when fed to lambs. 
Some time after the close of one of the early experiments at 
Purdue, four lambs died from the effects, supposedly of eating: 
spoiled silage. The cause was assigned to poisonous products 
resulting from decomposition of the silage, which was favored 
by the exposure of the silage to the air in warm weather and the 
low condition of the silo. 

Feeding an abnormal amount of silage, close conflnement, lack 
of exercise and lack of an experienced shepherd to handle the ewes 
at lambing time often prevent maximum results, and silage feeding 
has for this reason been unjustly condemned at times. 

The Indiana Station has been conducting experiments with 
feeding silage to pregnant ewes since 1907. A three year experi- 
ment was commenced that year with two lots of ewes, one lot 
being fed silage along with hay and grain and the other lot hay 
and more grain, but no silage. The silage ration was limited the 
first year, increased to 4 pounds the second year, and the third 
year the ewes were given all they could clean up, which was prac- 
tically 4.6 pounds. Even with this amount no harmful results 
were observed either in the ewes or the lambs. 

The experiment showed that the general thrift and appetite 
of the silage ewes was superior to that of the lots fed hay and 
grain alone. The former made each year a larger gain over winter 
than did those on dry feed. The latter averaged for the three 
years a gain of 6 pounds, while the silage ewes gained 13.75 
pounds, or more than twice as much. Tet the Station Bulletin 
states definitely that this gain was not mere fat like corn feeding 
will produce, but that the ewes were in good condition to produce 
strong, vigorous lambs. It was a noticeable fact, that "right 
straight through the whole three years, the lambs from the ewes 
having the succulent feed, i. e., silage, averaged nearly ten per 
cent, larger at birth. As to the cost of feed, the ration including 
silage proved the more economical, while more satisfactory results 
were obtained. The lambs from these two lots of ewes were all 
fed out for an early market, and those from each lot did equally 
well, gaining nearly half a pound per day until they were sold." 

Prof. King says that the same station has also "tested the value 
of corn silage for fattening lambs and found that the lambs were 
very easily kept on feed, made as rapid gains and finished as well 



200 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

as lambs fed rations not containing silage. The average of three 
trials at that station showed that there was an average reduction 
in cost of gain of 61 cents per hundred pounds." 

Wiliam Foy, of Foy & Townsend, Sycamore, 111., probably the 
most extensive silage feeders in the world, feeds 20,000 sheep and 
lambs a year on his 1400 acre farm. He makes silage his principal 
feed and uses thousands of tons. Even during the winter of 
1910-11, so disastrous in mutton feeding operations, his stock actu- 
ally paid out. Foy said: "The use of silage last winter averted 
a loss of approximately $1 per head on the entire output of our 
plant; in other words, it earned us that much money. * * * 
You cannot feed hay to sheep or cattle at $15 to $17 a ton. Even 
if it were possible, that policy would be questionable when a ton 
of silage produces as many pounds of gain as a ton of hay and 
costs $3 to $4. Weight for weight, I prefer silage, as it is more 
palatable. With hay at current abnormal prices we would have 
been forced out of business had silage not been available." 

Speaking of the advantages of silage, Mr. Foy says: "It saves 
one-third of the corri that would be needed if only hay was used 
as roughage, and obviates the use of hay entirely. The stock is 
maintained in healthy condition; in fact, I never had a sick sheep 
or even a lamb while feeding silage. When starting them on it, 
care is necessary, but once accustomed to the feed, they thrive. 
I figure at a 10-ton yield the product of an acre of silage to be 
worth $50, and allowing $15 for cost of production we get ap- 
proximately $35 out of an acre of corn. What the resultant 
manure pile is worth, is open to conjecture. I will say, however, 
that none of mine is for sale, and I could dispose of every pound 
at $1 per ton. The principal disadvantage is the lack of finishing 
quality and extra time needed to get the stock in marketable 
condition. This can be remedied by using corn or corn meal to 
put on a hard finish and it is our present practice. Saving one- 
third the corn is an item not to be sneezed at in these days tf 
big feed bills and narrow margins." 

Anthony Gardner of Hutchinson, Kans., one of the largest sheep 
feeders in the state, says silos are indispensable. He has two 
concrete silos aggregating 1300 tons capacity and uses silage for 
sheep exclusively. It not only increases his profits per lamb, but 
enables him to more than double his operations. During the 



SILAGE FOR SHEEP. 201 

winter of 1911-12, Mr. Gardner fattened 10,000 lambs on silage. 
Without this feed, he states that 4,000 would have been his limit. 
Aside from this feature the silo saved his corn crop from the hot 
winds of 1911 and allowed him to malfe the best use of the kafir 
he grew that season. Mr. Gardner's feeding operations are on $100 
land — too high-priced for pasturage or range purposes. In the fall 
of 1910 his silos were filled with corn, and 7,500 lambs were fat- 
tened with ensilage and grain. Corn was also the principal crop 
in 1911, but to test out kaflr, he topped off one of the silos with 
100 tons of it, and it proved s^) successful that in 1912 he planted 
80 acres to kaflr and cow peas sowed together, which on account 
of the increased bulk is about a third of what it took in acreage to 
fill with last year's corn crop. Mr. Gardner's silos cost about 
$1,000 each, and their owner figures that they cut nearly a third off 
the cost of his yearly feeding operations. He feeds ordinarily two 
pounds of silage and 1% pounds of grain a day (corn, bran and 
cottonseed meal) with kafir fodder for roughage. 

After marketing his 10,000 lambs early in 1912, he was offered 
$6.50 a ton for silage remaining on hand, but instead of selling, he 
picked up a bunch of 1,800 poorly wintered lambs at low figures 
which by means of silage he estimated later in the season would 
bring him a profit of about $1.50 per head. 

Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep men, says 
Prof. Woll in his Book on Silage; sheep do well on it, and silage- 
fed ewes drop their lambs in the spring without trouble, the lambs 
being strong and vigorous. Silage containing a good deal of corn 
is not well adapted for breeding stock, as it is too fattening; for 
fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in the silage is an 
advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple of pounds of silage a day 
and not to exceed five or six pounds per head. Prof. Cook reports 
as follows in regard to the value of silage for sheep: "Formerly 
I was much troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino ewes. Of 
late this trouble has almost ceased. Last spring I hardly lost a 
lamb. While ensilage may not be the entire cause of the change, 
I believe it is the main cause. It is positively proved that ensilage 
is a most valuable food material, when properly fed, for all our 
domestic animals." 

Mr. J. M. Turner of Michigan says concerning silage for sheep: 
"Of late years we have annually put up 3,200 tons of corn ensilage. 



202 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

and this has been the principal ration of all the live stock at 
Spring-dale Farm, our Shropshire sheep having been maintained on 
a ration of ensilage night and morning, coupled with a small ra- 
tion of clover hay in the middle of the day. This v/e found to fully 
meet the requirements of our flock until after lambing, from which 
time forward we of course added liberal rations of wheat bran, 
oats, and old-process linseed meal to the ewes, with a view of 
increasing their flow of milk and bringing forward the lambs in the 
most vigorous possible condition. Our flock-master was somewhat 
anxious until after the lambs dropped, but now that he saved 196 
lambs from 122 ewes, his face is wreathed in smiles, and he gives 
the ensilage system the strongest endorsement." 

O. C. Gregg, superintendent of Farmers' Institutes for Minne- 
sota, has been conducting some experiments on feeding silage to 
sheep. He gives the result in one of our American exchanges as 
follows: 

"The ewes are beautiful to look at, square on the back, bright 
of eye, active in appearance, and when the time comes for the 
feeding of silage they are anxious for their feed, and in ease there 
is any lapse in time, they soon make their wants known by bleat- 
ing about the troughs. The flock has been fed silage and good hay 
in the morning, with oat hay in reasonable abundance in the after- 
noon and evening. We have about ninety head of breeding ewes, 
including the lambs referred to, and they have been fed two grain 
sacks full of silage each day. This is not by any means heavy 
feeding, and it might be increased in quantity. This is a matter 
which we must learn from experience. We have fed the silage 
with care, not knowing what the results would be if fed heavily." 



Silage for Swine- 

The testimony concerning the value of silage as a food for 
swine is conflicting, both favorable and unfavorable reports being 
at hand. Many farmers have tried feeding it to their hogs, but 
without success. On the other hand, a number of hog-raisers have 
had good success with silage, and feed it regularly to their swine. 
It is possible that the difference in the quality of the silage and of 
the methods of feeding practiced explain the diversity of opinions 
formed concerning silage as hog food. Col. F. D. Curtiss, the great 



SILAGE FOR SWINE. . 203 

American authority on the swine industry, states that silage is 
valuable to add to the winter rations of our swine. Mr. J. W. 
Pierce of Indiana writes in regard to silage for hogs: "We have 
fed our sows, about twenty-five in number, for four winters,- equal 
parts of ensilage and corn meal put into a cooker, and brought up 
to a steaming state. It has proved to be very beneficial to them. 
It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows that are nursing the 
young, equal to when they are running on clover. We find, too, 
when the pigs are farrowed, they become more robust, and take 
to nursing much sooner and better than they did in winters when 
fed on an exclusively dry diet. We also feed it to our sheep. To 
sixty head we put out about six bushels of ensilage." Young pigs 
are exceedingly fond of silage. Feeding experiments conducted at 
Virginia Experiment Station show that silage is an economical 
maintenance feed for hogs, when fed in connection with a little 
corn, but not when fed alone. 

In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to feed only 
very little, a pound or so, at the start, mixing it with corn meal, 
shorts, or other concentrated feeds. The diet of the hog should be 
largely made up of easily digested grain food; bulky, coarse feeds 
like silage can only be fed to advantage in small quantities, not to 
exceed three or four pounds per head per day. As in case of breed- 
ing ewes, silage will give good results when fed with care to 
brood sows, keeping the system in order, and producing a good 
flow of milk. 

Silage for Poultry- 

But little experience is at hand as to the use of silage as a poul- 
try food; some farmers, however, are feeding a little silage to their 
poultry with good success. Only small quantities should, of course, 
be fed, and it is beneflcial as a stimulant and a regulator, as much 
as food. A poultry raiser writes as follows in Orange Judd Farmer, 
concerning his experience in making and feeding silage to fowls. 
Devices similar to that here described have repeatedly been ex- 
plained in the agricultural press: "Clover and corn silage is one 
of the best winter foods for poultry raisers. Let me tell you how 
to build four silos for $1. Buy four coal-oil barrels at the drug 
store, burn them out on the inside, and take the heads out. Go to 
the clover field when the second crop of the small June clover is 



204 HOW TO FEED SILAGK. 

in bloom, and cut one-half to three-eighths of an inch in length, 
also one-half ton of sweet corn, and run this through the 
feed cutter. Put into the barrel a layer of clover, then a layer 
of corn. Having done this, take a common building jack-screw 
and press the silage down as firmly as possible. Then put on this 
a very light sprinkling of pulverized charcoal, and keep on putting 
in clover and corn until you get the barrel as full as will admit of 
the cover being put back. After your four barrel silos are filled, 
roll them out beside the barn, and cover them with horse manure, 
allowing them to remain there thirty days. Then put them away, 
covering with cut straw or hay. When the cold, chilling winds of 
December come, open one of these 'poultrymen's silos,' take about 
twenty pounds for one hundred hens, add equal parts of potatoes, 
ground oats, and winter rye, place same in a kettle and bring to a 
boiling state. Feed warm in the morning and the result will be 
that you will be enabled to market seven or eight dozen eggs per 
day from one hundred hens through the winter, when eggs bring 
good returns." 

Additional Testimony as to the Value of Silage. 

Corn silage compared with root crops. — Root crops are noi 
grown to any large extent in this country, but occasionally an old- 
country farmer will gro^v roots for his stock, because his father 
did so, and his grandfather and great-grandfather before him. 
This is what a well-known English writer, H. Henry Rew, says 
as to the comparative value of roots and silage, from the stand- 
point of an English farmer: 

"The root crop has, for about a century and a half, formed the 
keystone of arable farming; yet it is the root crop whose position 
is most boldly challenged by silage. No doubt roots are expensive 
— say £10 per acre as the cost of producing an ordinary crop of 
turnips — and precarious, as the experience of the winter of 1887-8 
has once more been notably exemplified in many parts of the 
country. In a suggestive article in the Farming World Almanac 
for 1888, Mr. Primrose McConnell discusses the question: 'Are 
Turnips a Necessary Crop?' and sums up his answer in the follow- 
ing definite conclusion: 

" 'Everything, in short, is against the use of roots, either as a 



CORN SILAGE COMPARED TO ROOTS. 205 

cheap and desirable food for any kind of live stock, as a crop suit- 
ed for the fallow break, which cleans the land at little outlay, or 
as one which preserves or increases the fertility of the soil.' 

"If the growth of turnips is abandoned or restricted, ensilage 
comes in usually to assist the farmer in supplying their place. 
* * * When one comes to compare the cultivation of silage 
crops with that of roots, there are two essential points in favor of 
the former. One is their smaller expense, and the other is their 
practical certainty. The farmer who makes silage can make cer- 
tain of his winter store of food, whereas he who has only his root 
crop may find himself left in the lurch at a time when there is lit- 
tle chance of making other provision." 

"We have accurate information as to the yields and cost of pro- 
duction of roots and corn silage in this country from a number of 
American experiment stations. This shows that the tonnage of 
green or succulent feed per acre is not materially different in case 
of the two crops, generally speaking. But when the uuantities of 
dry matter harvested in the crop are considered, the corn has been 
found to yield about twice as much as the ordinary root crops. 
According to data published by the Pennsylvania Station, the cost 
of an acre of beets in the pit amounts to about $56, and of an acre 
of corn in the silo about $21, only half the quantities of food ma- 
terials obtained, and at more than double the cost. 

When the feeding value of these two crops has been compared, 
as has been the case in numerous trials at experiment stations, it 
has been found that the dry matter of beets certainly has no 
higher, and in many cases has been found to have a lower, value 
than that of corn silage; the general conclusion to be drawn, there- 
fore, is that "beets cost more to grow, harvest and store, yield less 
per acre, and produce at best no more and no better milk or other 
farm product than corn silage." 

Corn silage compared with hay. — A ton and a half of hay per 
acre is generally considered a good average crop in humid regions. 
Since hay contains about 86 per cent, dry matter, a crop of 1% 
tons means 2,580 pounds of dry matter. Against this yield we 
have yields of 5,000 to 9,000 pounds of dry matter, or twice to 
three and a half times as much, in case of fodder corn. An aver- 
age crop of green fodder will weigh twelve tons of Northern varie- 



206 HOAV TO FEED SILAGE. 

ties and eighteen tons of Southern varieties. Estimating- the per- 
centage of dry matter in the former at 50 per cent,, and in the 
latter at 20 per cent., we shall have in either case a yield of 7,200 
pounds of dry matter. If we allow for 10 per cent, of loss of dry 
matter in the silo there is still 6,500 pounds of dry matter to be 
credited to the corn. The expense of growing the corn crop is, of 
course, higher than that of growing hay, but by no means suffi- 
ciently so to offset the larger yields. It is a fact generally con- 
ceded by all who have given the subject any study, that the hay 
crop is the most expensive crop used for the feeding of our farm 
animals. 

The late Sir John B. Lawes, of Rothamsted Experiment Station 
(England) said, respecting the relative value of hay and (grass) 
silage: "It is probable that when both (i. e., hay and silage) are of 
the very best quality that can be made, if part of the grass is cut 
and placed in the silo, and another part is secured in the stack 
without rain, one might prove as good food as the other. But it 
must be borne in mind that while the production of good hay is a 
matter of uncertainty — from the elements of success being beyond 
the control of the farmer — good silage, by taking proper precau- 
tions, can be made with certainty." 

A few feeding experiments with corn silage vs. hay will be 
mentioned in the following: 

In an experiment with milch cows conducted at the New Hamp- 
shire Station, the silage ration, containing 16.45 pounds of digesti- 
ble matter, produced 21.0 pounds of milk, and the hay ration, con- 
taining 16.83 pounds digestible matter, produced 18.4 pounds milk; 
calculating the quantities of milk produced by 100 pounds of di- 
gestible matter in either case, we find on the silage ration, 127.7 
pounds of milk, on the hay ration, 109.3 pounds, or 17 per cent, in 
favor of the silage ration. 

In a feeding experiment with milch cows at the Maine Station, 
In which silage likewise was compared with hay, the addition of 
silage to the ration resulted in a somewhat increased production 
of milk solids, which was not caused by an increase in the digesti- 
ble food materials eaten, but which must have been due either to 
the superior value of the nutrients of the silage over those of the 
hay or to the general psychological effect of feeding a great vari- 
ety of foods. 8.8 pounds of silage proved to be somewhat superior 



CORN SILAGE COMPARED TO HAY. 207 

to 1.98 pounds of hay (mostly timothy), the quantity of digestible 
material being the same in the two cases. 

In another experiment, conducted at the same station, where 
silage was compared with hay for steers, a pound of digestible 
matter from the corn silage produced somewhat more growth than 
a pound of digestible matter from timothy hay. The difference 
was small, however, amounting in the case of the last two periods, 
where the more accurate comparison is possible, to an increased 
growth of only 15 pounds of live weight for each ton of silage fed. 

Corn silage compared with fodder corn. — The cost of produc- 
tion is the same for the green fodder up to the time of siloing, in 
case of both systems; as against the expense of siloing the crop 
comes that of shocking, and later on, placing the fodder under 
shelter in the field-curing process; further husking, cribbing, and 
grinding the coi'n, and cutting the corn stalks, since this is the 
most economical way of handling the crop, and the only way in 
which it can be fully utilized so as to be of as great value as pos- 
sible for dry fodder. Professor King found the cost of placing 
com in the silo to be 58. (i cents per ton, on the average for five 
Wisconsin farms, or, adding to this amount, interest and taxes on 
the silo investment, and insurance and maintenance of silo per ton, 
73.2 cents. The expense of shocking and sheltering the cured fod- 
der, and later cutting the same, will greatly exceed that of siloing 
the crop; to obtain the full value in feeding the ear corn, it must, 
furthermore, in most cases, be ground, costing ten cents or more 
a bushel of 70 lbs. The advantage is, therefore, decidedly with the 
siloed fodder in economy of handling, as well as in the cost of pro- 
duction. 

The comparative feeding value of corn silage and fodder corn 
has been determined in a large number of trials at different experi- 
ment stations. The earlier ones of these experiments were made 
with only a couple of animals each, and no reliance can, therefore, 
be placed on the results obtained in any single experiinent. In the 
later experiments a large number of cows have been included, and 
these have been continued for sufficiently long time to show what 
the animals could do on each feed. 

Comparative Cost of Producing Silage. — The Oregon Agricul- 
tural College Bulletin No. 156, comparing the total digestible nu- 
trients of silage with other succulent feeds based largely on figures 



208 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding" shows that one ton of corn 
silage is equal to 1.0 ton of artichokes, 1.4 tons of parsnips, 1.5 
tons of sugar beets, 1.8 tons of rutabagas, 1.8 tons of carrots, 2.2 
tons of turnips, 2.4 tons of mangels, or 2.3 tons of kale. These 
figures do not take into consideration the palatability or the stim- 
ulation on milk secretion that any of these feeds might exert. 

Table XIV., compiled by the same station, may be of Interest: 

Table XIV. — Cost of Production of One Acre of Succulent Crops 
in Western Oregon. 



Corn 
Kale. Roots. Silage. 

Value of manure, at $1.00 per load $12.00 

Applying manure, at 30c per load 3.60 

Double disking .75 

Plowing 2.00 

Preparation of Seed Bed 1-40 

Seed 25 

Planting 5.00 

Cultivation 2.00 

Harvest — (corn in silo) 17.50 

Depreciation and interest on machinery 

and storage .60 

$45.10 

Average yield per acre (tons) 25 

Cost per ton $ 1.80 

Average yield per acre- diarestible nutri- 
ents (pounds) 3480 

Cost per 100 pounds digestible nutrients. $ 1.30 



The above table shows the cost of preparing the seed bed, seed- 
ing, harvesting, and interest and depreciation on machinery, and 
storage to be as follows: For one acre of kale, $45.10; for one 
acre of roots, $44.05; and for one acre of corn, $28.30. The cost 
per ton of the kale is least, and that of the corn silage is greatest, 
but the cost per hundred pounds of digestible nutrients in the kale 
is 51 per cent, more, and in the roots, 47 per cent, more, than in the 
corn silage. 

Table XV. gives an outline for arriving at the cost of producing 
silage from start to finish. The table was prepared by the Texas 
Agricultural Experiment Station. Many farmers in figuring the 
cost of producing crops fail to consider the value of their own 
labor, the rent of the land, the depreciation of fences surrounding 



$12.00 


$ 6.00 


3.60 


1.80 


.75 


.75 


2.00 


2.00 


1.40 


1.00 


1.20 


.50 


.50 


.50 


7.00 


2.00 


15.00 


10.00 


.60 


3.75 


$44.05 


$28.30 


20 


10 


$ 2.20 


$ 2.83 


3440 


3260 


$ 1.28 


$ 0.86 



COMPARATIVE COST OF PRODUCING SILAGE. 209 

the crop, etc. For example, the depreciation of a fence estimated 
to last ten years should be figured at 10 per cent, of its value. 

Table XV. — Outline for Arriving at the Cost of Producing Silage. 



Dr. 



Cr. 



Plowing- (breaking) at $ per acre 

Discing- at $ per acre . . . 

Harrowing at $ per acre 

Commercial fertilizer .... lbs. at $. . . . per acre. . 

Other fertilizer lbs. at $ per acre. . . 

Planting at $ per acre 

Seed at $ per acre 

First cultivation at $ per acre 

Second cultivation at $ per acre 

Third cultivation at $ per acre 

Fourth cultivation at $ per acre 

Fifth cultivation at $ per acre 

Harrowing at $ per acre 

Harvesting (row binder) at $ per acre 

Hauling to silo $ per ton, $ per acre. 

Cutting and filling silo at $. . . . per ton, $. . . . per 

acre 

Interest on investment in silo, engine and cutter 

at per cent 

Depreciation on silo, engine and cutter at 10 per 

cent 

Rent of land at $ per acre 

Taxes on land, implements, silo, engine and cutter. 
Depreciation of fences, at per cent 



Total cost of producing tons silage from 

acres at $ per ton 

Total feeding value of tons silage from 

acres at $ per ton 

Total profit or loss, per ton $...., per acre $. . . . 



A few experiments illustrating the value of silage as a stock 
food may be quoted. Prof. Henry fed two lots of steers on a silage 
experiment. One lot of four steers was fed on corn silage ex- 
clusively, and another similar lot corn silage with shelled corn. 
The former lot gained 222 pounds in thirty-six days, and the lat- 
ter lot 535 pounds, or a gain of 1.5 pounds per day per head for the 
silage-fed steers, and 3.7 pounds per day for the silage and shelled- 
corn-fed steers. Prof. Emery fed corn silage and cottonseed meal, 
in the proportion of eight to one, to two three-year-old steers, at 
the North Carolina Experiment Station. The gain made during 
thirty-two days was, for one steer, 78 pounds, and for the other. 
85.5 pounds, or 2.56 pounds per head per day. 



210 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

The late well-known Wisconsin dairyman, Hon. Hiram Smith, 
in 1888 gave the following testimony concerning the value of 
silage for milch cows: "My silo was opened December 1st, and 
thirty pounds of ensilage was fed to each of the ninety cows for 
the night's feed, or 2,700 pounds per day, until March 10, one hun- 
dred days, or a total of 135 tons, leaving sufficient ensilage to last 
until May 10th. The thirty pounds took and well filled the place of 
ten pounds of good hay. Had hay been fed for the night's feed in 
place of the ensilage, it would have required 900 pounds per day 
for the ninety cows, or a total for the one hundred days of forty- 
five tons. 

"It would have required, in the year 1887, forty-five acres of 
meadow to have produced the hay, which, if bought or sold, would 
have amounted to $14.00 per acre. The 135 tons of ensilage were 
produced on 8^/^ acres of land, and had a feeding value, as com- 
pared with hay, of $74.11 per acre." As the conclusion of the 
whole matter, Mr. Smith stated that "three cows can be wintered 
seven months on one acre producing 16 tons of ensilage, while it 
required two acres of meadow in the same year of 1887 to winter 
one cow, with the same aniount of ground feed in both cases." 

Professor Shelton, formerly of Kansas Agricultural College, 
gives a powerful plea for silage in the following simple statement: 
"The single fact that -the product of about two acres of ground 
kept our herd of fifty cattle five weeks with no other feed of the 
fodder kind, except a small ration of corn fodder given at noon, 
speaks whole cyclopedias for the possibilities of Kansas fields 
when the silo is called in as an adjunct." 

In conclusion. — We will bring our discussion of the silo and its 
importance in American agriculture, to a close by quoting the 
opinions of a few recognized leaders on agricultural matters as to 
the value of silos and silage. 

Says Ex-Gov. Hoard, the editor of Hoard's Dairyman, and a 
noted dairy lecturer: "For dairying of all the year around the silo 
is almost indispensable." 

Prof. Hill, the director of Vermont Experiment Station: "It was 
long ago clearly shown that the most economical farm-grown car- 
bohydrates raised in New England are derived from the corn plant. 



ECONOMY IN PRODUCTION OF FEED MATERIALS. 211 

and that they are more economically preserved for cattle feeding 
in the silo than in any other way." 

H. C. Wallace, formerly editor Creamery Gazette, now business 
manager Wallace's Farmer: "While not an absolute necessity, the 
silo is a great convenience in the winter, and in times of protracted 
dryness almost a necessity in summer." 

Prof. Carlyle, formerly of Wisconsin Agricultural College, now 
director Experiment Station, Moscow, Idaho: "A silo is a great 
labor-saving device for preserving the cheapest green fodder in 
the best form." 

C. P. Goodrich, conductor of Farmers' Institutes in Wisconsin, 
and a well-know lecturer and authority on dairy topics: "A farmer 
can keep cows profitably without a silo, but he can make more 
profit with one, because he can keep his cows with less expense 
and they will produce more." 

Prof. Deane, of Ontario Agricultural College: "The silo is be- 
coming a greater necessity every year in Ontario." 

Thus it will be seen that from all parts of the world wherever 
the silo is in use, the evidence points in favor of silage, there no 
longer being an argument against it, in connection with the dairy, 
and especially in latitudes where com can be grown. 

Economy In production of feed materials means increased 
profits. Competition establishes the price at which the farmer 
and dairyman must market his products; but by the study of ap- 
proved and modern methods the farmer can regulate his profits. 



CHAPTER XI. 

A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 

It has been thought best, in order to increase the usefulness of 
this little book to practical farmers, to add to the specific infor- 
mation given in the preceding pages as to the making and feeding 
of silage, a brief general outline of the main principles that should 
govern the feeding of farm animals. This will include a statement 
of the character of the various components of the feeding stuffs 
used for the nutrition of farm stock, with tables of composition, 
and a glossary of scientific or technical terms often met with 
in agricultural papers, experiment station reports, and similar 
publications. Many of these terms are used constantly in discus- 
sions of agricultural topics, and unless the farmer has a fairly 
clear idea of their meaning, the discussions will often be of no 
value to him. The information given in the following is put in as 
plain and simple language as possible, and only such facts are 
given as are considered of fundamental importance to the feeder 
of farm stock. 

Composition of the Animal Body. 

The most important components of the animal body are: Water, 
ash, protein, and fat. We shall briefly describe these components. 

Water is found in larger quantities in the animal body than any 
other substance. It makes up about a third to nearly two-thirds 
of the live weight of farm animals. The fatter the animal is, the 
less water is found in its body. We may consider 50 per cent, of 
the body weight a general average for the water content of the 
body of farm animals. When it comes to animal products used for 
food purposes, there are wide variations in the water content; 
from between 80 and 90 per cent., in case of milk, to between 40 
and 60 per cent, in meat of various kinds, about 12 per cent, in 
butter, and less than 10 per cent, in fat salt pork. 

Ash or mineral matter is that portion of the animal body which 

212 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 213 

remains behind when the body is burned. The bones of animals 
contain large quantities of mineral matter, while the muscles and 
other parts of the body contain only small amounts; it must not 
be concluded, however, that the ash materials are of minor impor- 
tance for this reason; both young and full-grown animals require 
a constant supply of ash materials in their food; if the food should 
not contain a certain minimum ainount of ash materials, and of 
various compounds contained therein which are essential to life, 
the animal will very soon turn sick, and if the deficiency is not 
made up will die, no matter how much of other food components 
may be supplied. As both ash and water are either present in 
sufficient quantities in feeding stuffs, or can be easily supplied, the 
feeder does not ordinarily need to give much thought to these 
components in the selection of foods for his stock except in the 
case of young animals fed corn (which is lacking in ash ma- 
terials), and in feeding milch cows and steers which require an ad- 
dition of salt in order to do well. 

Protein is the name of a large group of very complex substances 
that have certain characteristics in common, the more important 
of which is that they all contain the element nitrogen. The most 
important protein substances found in the animal body are: lean 
meat, fibrin, all kinds of tendons, ligaments, nerves, skin, brain, in 
fact the entire working machinery of the animal body. The casein 
of milk and the white of the egg are, furthermore, protein sub- 
stances. It is evident from the enumeration made that protein is 
to the animal body what the word implies, the most important, 
the first. 

Fat is a familiar component of the animal body; it is dis- 
tributed throughout the body in ordinary cases, but is found de- 
posited on certain organs, or under the skin, in thick layers, in the 
case of very fat animals. 

The animal cannot, as is well known, live on air; it must manu- 
facture its body substances and products from the food it eats, 
hence the next subject for consideration should be: 

Composition of Feeding Stuffs. 

The feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of our farm animals 
are, generally speaking, composed of similar compounds as those 



214 A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 

which are found in the body of the animal itself, although the 
components in the two cases are rarely identical, but can be dis- 
tinguished from each other in most cases by certain chemical re- 
actions. The animal body through its vital functions has the 
faculty of changing the various food substances which it finds in 
the food in such a way that they are in many instances different 
from any substances found in the vegetable world. 

The components of feeding stuffs which are generally enumerat- 
ed and taken into account in ordinary chemical fodder analysis, or 
in discussions of feeding problems are: Water (or moisture, as it 
is often called), ash materials, fat (or ether-extract), protein, fiber, 
and nitrogen-free extract; the two components last given are 
sometimes grouped together under the name carbohydrates. These 
components are in nearly all cases mixtures of substances that 
possess certain properties in common; and as the mixtures are 
often made up of different components, or of the same compon- 
ents in varying proportions, it follows that even if a substance is 
given in a table of composition of feeding stuffs, in the same quan- 
tities in case of two different feeds, these feeds do not necessarily 
have the same food value as far as this component alone is con- 
cerned. 

Water or moisture is found in all feeding stuffs, whether succu- 
lent or apparently dry. Green fodders contain from 60 to 90 per 
cent, of water, according to the stage of maturity of the fodder; 
root crops contain between 80 and 90 per cent., while hay of dif- 
ferent kinds, straw, and concentrated feeds ordinarily have water 
contents ranging between 20 and 5 per cent. 

Ash or mineral matter is found in all plant tissues and feeding 
stuffs. We find most ash in leafy plants, or in refuse feeds made 
up from the outer covering of grains or other seeds, viz., from 4 to 
8 per cent.; less in the cereals and green fodder, and least of all 
in roots. A fair amount of ash materials is a necessity in feeding 
young stock and pregnant animals, and only limited amount of 
foods low in ash should be fed to such animals; refuse feed from 
starch and glucose factories which have been treated with large 
quantities of water should, therefore, be fed with care in such 
cases. 

Fat or ether-extract is the portion of the feeding stuff which is 
dissolved by ether or benzine. It is found in large quantities in 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 215 

the oil-bearing seeds, about one third of these being composed of 
oil or fat; the oil-mill refuse feeds are also rich in fat, especially 
cottonseed meal and old-process linseed meal; other feeds rich in 
fat are gluten meal and feed, dried distillers' grains, and rice meal. 
The ether-extract of the coarse fodders contains considerable wax, 
resins, and other substances which have a low feeding value, while 
that of the seeds and by-products from these are essentially pure 
fat or oil. 

Protein or flesh-forming substances are considered of the high- 
est importance in feeding animals, because they supply the ma- 
terial required for building up the tissues of the body, and for 
maintaining these under the wear caused by the vital functions. 
Ordinarily the feed rations of most farmers are deficient in protein 
since most of the farm-grown foods (aside from clover, alfalfa, 
peas and similar crops) contain only small amounts of these sub- 
stances. The feeding stuffs richest in protein are, among the coarse 
foods, those already mentioned; among the concentrated foods; 
cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, buckwheat 
middlings, and the flour-mill, brewery, and distillery refuse feeds. 
The protein substances are also called nitrogenous bodies for the 
reasons given above, and the other organic (combustible) compo- 
nents in the feeding stuffs are spoken of as non -nitrogenous sub- 
stances. The non-nitrogenous components of feeding stuffs, there- 
fore, include fat and the two following groups, fiber and nitrogen- 
free extract. 

Crude fiber (or simply fiber) is the framework of the plants, 
forming the walls of the cells. It is usually the least digestible 
portion of plants and vegetable foods, and the larger proportion 
present thereof the less valuable the food is. We find, according- 
ly, that the fodders containing most fiber are the cheapest foods 
and least prized by feeders, as, e. g., straw of the various cereal 
and seed-producing crops, corncobs, oat and rice hulls, cottonseed 
hulls, buckwheat hulls, and the like. These feeding stuffs, in so 
far as they can be considered as such, contain as a rule between 
35 and 50 per cent, of fibre. Concentrated feeding stuffs, on the 
other hand, generally contain less than 10 per cent, of fibre and in 
all cereals but oats only a few per cent, of fibre are found. 

Nitrogen -free extract is a general name for all that is left of 
the organic matter of plants and fodders after deducting the pre- 



216 ■ A "FEEDERS' GUIDE. 

ceding groups of compounds. It includes some of the most val- 
uable constituents of feeding stuffs, which make up the largest 
bulk of the food materials; first in importance among these con- 
stituents are starch and sugar, and, in addition, a number of less 
well-known substances of similar composition, like pentosans, 
gums, organic acids, etc. Together with fiber the nitrogen-free 
extracts forms the group of substances known as carbohydrates. 
A general name for carbohydrates is heat-producing substances, 
since this is one important function which they fill; they are not 
as valuable for this purpose, pound for pound, as fat, which also 
is often used for the purpose by the animal organism, but on ac- 
count of the large quantities in which the carbohydrates are 
found in most feeding stuffs they form a group of food materials 
second to none in importance. Since it has been found that fat 
will produce on combustion about 2% times as much heat as car- 
bohydrates, the two components are often considered together in 
tables of composition of feeding stuffs and in discussions of the 
feeding value of different foods, the per cent, of fat being multi- 
plied by 2 V4 in such cases, and added to the per cent, of carbo- 
hydrates (i. e., fiber plus nitrogen-free extract) in the foods. As 
this renders comparisons much easier, and simplifies calculations 
for the beginner, we shall adopt this plan in the tables and discus- 
sions given in this Guide. 

Carbohydrates and fat not only supply heat on being oxidized 
or burned in the body, but also furnish materials for energy used 
in muscular action, whether this be voluntary or involuntary. 
They also in all probability are largely used for the purpose of 
storing fatty tissue in the body of fattening animals, or of other 
animals that are fed an excess of nutrients above what is required 
for the production of the necessary body heat and muscular force. 

To summarize briefly the use of the various food elements: 
Protein is required for building up muscular tissue, and to supply 
the breaking-down and waste of nitrogenous components con- 
stantly taking place in the living body. If fed in excess of this 
requirement it is used for production of heat and energy. The 
non-nitrogenous organic components, i. e., carbohydrates and fat, 
furnish material for supply of heat and muscular exertion, as well 
as for the production of fat in the body or in the milk, in case of 
milk-producing animals. 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 217 

Digestibility of foods. — Oilly a certain portion of a feeding stuff 
is of actual value to the animal, viz., the portion which the diges- 
tive juices of the animal can render soluble, and thus bring into 
a condition in which the system can make the use of it called for; 
this digestible portion ranges from one-half or less to more than 
96 per cent, in case of highly digestible foods. The rest is simply 
ballast, and the more ballast, i. e., the less of digestible matter a 
food contains, the more the value of the digestible portion is re- 
duced. Straw, e. g., is found, by means of digestion experiments, 
to contain between 30 and 40 per cent, of digestible matter in all, 
but it is very doubtful whether an animal can be kept alive for any 
length of time when fed straw alone. It very likely costs him 
more effort to extract the digestible matter therefrom than the 
energy this can supply. An animal lives on and produces not from 
what he eats but from what he digests and assimilates. 

Relative value of feeding stuffs. Since the prices of different 
feeding stuffs vary greatly with the locality and season, it is im- 
possible to give definite statements as to the relative economy 
which will always hold good; it may be said, in general, that the 
feeding stuffs richest in protein are our most costly and at the 
same time our most valuable foods. Experience has shown to a 
certainty that a liberal supply of protein is an advantage in feed- 
ing most classes of farm animals, so that if such feeding stuffs 
can be obtained at fair prices, it wiH pay to feed them quite ex- 
tensively, and they must enter into all food rations in fair quanti- 
ties in order that the animals may produce as much milk, meat, 
or other farm products, as is necessary to render them profitable 
to their owner. The following statement shows a classification of 
feeding stuffs which may prove helpful in deciding upon kinds and 
amounts of feeds to be. purchased or fed: 



218 A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 

Table XVI. — Classification of Cattle Foods. — A. Coarse Feeds. 



Low in protein. 

High in carbo- 
hydrates. 

50 to 65 per cent, 
digestible. 



Medium in protein. Low in protein. 

Medium in carbo- High in carbo- 
hydrates, hydrates. 

55 to 65 per cent. 85 to 95 per cent. 



digestible. 



digestible. 



Hays, straws, 
corn fodder, 
corn stover, 
silage, cereal 
fodders. 



Clovers, alfalfa, 
pasture grass, 
vetches, pea 
and bean fod- 
der. 



Carrots, potatoes, 
sugar beets, 
mangolds, 
turnips. 



B. Concentrates. 



Very high 


High in pro- 


Fairly high in 


Low in 


in protein 


tein 


protein 


protein 


(above 40 per 


(25-40 per 


(12-25 per 


(below 12 per 


cent.) 


cent.) 


cent.) 


cent.) 


Dried blood. 


Gluten meal. 


Malt sprouts. 


Wheat. 


Meat scraps. 


Atlas meal. 


Gluten feed. 


Barley. 


Cottonseed 


Linseed meal. 


Cow pea. 


Oats. 


meal. 


Buckwheat 


Pea meal. 


Rye. 




middlings. 


Wheat shorts. 


Corn. 




Buckwheat 


Rye shorts. 


Rice polish. 




shorts. 


Oat shorts. 


Rice. 




Soy bean. 


Wheat 


Hominy 




Dried distillers' 


middlings. 


chops or 




and breM'ers' 


Wheat bran. 


feed. 




grains. 


Low-grade 


Germ meal. 






flour. 


Oat feeds. 



The Feed Unit System. 

This system furnishes a convenient and accurate method of 
comparing the feed consumption of different farm animals and of 
determining the relative economy of their production. It has been 
found, for example in the case of dairy cows, that some cows 
produce a certain amount of milk and butter-fat much more 
cheaply than others, so far as their feed consumption is con- 



TABLE OF FEED UNITS. 



219 



cerned; they are economical producers and should preferably be 
used for dairy prodviction and as foundation stock for the dairy. 
Heifer cows from such cows will be likely to be large and profit- 
able producers. By the feed unit system a simple, definite figure 
is obtain for the total feed eaten by farm animals, including that 
eaten on pasture. 

An example will readily illustrate the application of the sj's- 
tem. For instance, it has been found that 1.1 pounds of wheat 



Table XVI!.— Table of Feed Units. 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Pounds of Feed 

required to eciual 

1 unit. 



Comrentrates — 

Corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried 
brewers' grains, wheat middlings, oat shorts. 
Peas, Unicorn Dairy Ration, molasses beet 
pulp 

Cotton seed meal 

Oil meal, Ajax Flakes (dried distillers' grains), 
gluten feed, soy beans 

Wheat bran, oats, dried beet pulp, barley feed, 
malt sprouts, International Sugar Feed, 
Quaker or Sugarota Molasses or Dairy Feed, 
Sucrene Dairy Feed, Badger Dairy Feed, 
Schumacher Stock Feed, molasses grains.... 

Alfalfa meal, Victor feed, June Pasture, alfalfa 
molasses feeds .■ 

Hay and Straw — 

Alfalfa hay, clover hay 

Mixed hay, oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley and 

pea hay, red top hay 

Timothy hay, prairie hay, sorghum hay 

Corn stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay, cut 

straw 

Soiling crops, silage and other succulent feeds — 

Green alfalfa 

Green corn, sorghum, clover, peas and oats, 

cannery refuse 

Alfalfa silage 

Corn silage, pea vine silage 

Wet brewers' grains 

Potatoes, skim milk, butter milk 

Sugar beets 

Carrots 

Rutabagas 

Field beets, green rape 

Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey 

Turnips, mangels, fresh beet pulp 

Pasture, 8 to 12 units per day, on the average 
varying with kind and condition. 



Aver- 
age. 



1.0 
0.8 



0.9 



Range. 



1 1 






1.2 




2.0 


1.5- 


—3.0 


2.5 
3.0 


2.0- 
2.5- 


-3.0 
-3.5 


4.0 


3.5- 


-6.0 


7.0 


6.0- 


—8.0 


8.0 
5 


7.0— 


-10.0 


6.0 
4.0 


5.0- 


-7.0 


6.0 




7.0 




8.0 




9.0 
10.0 


8.0— 


-10.0 


12.0 




12.5 


10.0— 


-15.0 



220 A FE2BDERS' GUIDE. 

bran, or 2.5 pounds of hay of average quality, can be substituted 
to a limited extent for a pound of grain in ordinary dairy rations, 
without changing appreciably the yield or the composition of the 
milk produced by the cows, or influencing their live weights or 
general condition. These quantities of the different feeds are, 
therefore, considered of similar value and equivalent to one feed 
unit. If a cow ate 750 pounds of hay, 150 pounds of bran, and 90 
pounds of ground corn during a certain month, she received 750 
divided by 2.5, or 300 feed units, in the hay eaten, 150 divided by 
1.1 or 136 in the bran, and 90 in the ground com, making a total 
of 526 feed units eaten. 

If she yielded one pound "of butter-fat a day in her milk on 
this feed, or 30 pounds for the month, she produced 30 divided 
by 5.26, or 5.70 pounds of butter-fat per 100 feed units consumed 
in her feed. There are great differences among cows in the 
returns made per unit of feed, and data obtained as given above 
show in a striking manner whether a cow is an economical pro- 
ducer or whether she required an excessive amount of feed to 
make her production. 

Through this information, along with that as to the capacity 
of the cow for dairy production furnished by a milk scale and a 
Babcock tester, a farmer can find out definitely the rank of the 
different cows in the herd as dairy producers and may thus know 
which ones, if any, are not profitable animals and should be sent 
to the butcher. 

Feeding Standards. 

Investigations by scientists have brought to light the fact that 
the different classes of farm animals require certain amounts of 
food materials for keeping the body functions in a regular healthy 
activity; this is known as the maintenance ration of the animal, 
an allowance of feed which will cause him to maintain his live 
weight without either gaining or losing, or producing animal 
products like milk, wool, meat, eggs, etc. If the animal is expected 
to manufacture these products in addition, it is necessary to supply 
enough extra food to furnish materials for this manufacture. The 
food requirements for different purposes have been carefully 
studied, and we know now with a fair amount of accuracy how 
much food it takes in the different cases to reach the objects 



A PRACTICAL FEEDING RATION. 221 

sought. Since there is a great variety of different foods, and 
ahnost infinite possible combinations of these, it would not do to 
express these requirements in so and so many pounds of corn, or 
oats, or wheat bran, but they are in all cases expressed in 
amounts of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat. This en- 
ables the feeder to supply these food materials in such feeding 
stuffs as he has on hand or can procure. The feeding standards 
commonly adopted as basis for calculations of this kind are those 
of the German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann. Those standards 
give, then, the approximate amount of dry matter, digestible pro- 
tein, carbohydrates, and fat, which the different classes of farm 
animals should receive in their daily food in order to produce 
maximum returns. We have seen that a fair amount of digestible 
protein in the food is essential in order to obtain good results. 
The proportion of digestible nitrogenous to digestible non-nitro- 
genous food substances therefore becomes important. This pro- 
portion is technically known as nutritive ratio, and we speak 
of wide nutritive ratio, when there are six or more times as much 
digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration as there is digestible 
protein, and of a narrow ratio, when the proportion of the two 
kinds of food materials is as 1 to 6, or less. 

The feeding standards given in the following tables may serve 
as a fairly accurate guide in determining the food requirements 
of farm animals; and it will be noticed that the amounts are per 
1,000 pounds live weight, and not per head, except as noted in the 
case of growing animals. The standards should not be looked 
upon as infallible guides, which they are not, for the simple rea- 
son that different animals differ greatly both In the amounts of 
food that they consume and in the uses which they are able to 
make of the food they eat. The feeding standard for milch cows 
has probably been subjected to the closest study by American 
experiment station workers, and it has been found, in general, 
that the Wolff-Lehmann standard calls for more digestible protein 
(i. e., a narrower nutritive ratio) than can be fed with economy 
in most of the dairy sections of our country, at least in the 
central and northwestern states. On basis of investigations along 
this line conducted in the early part of the nineties. Prof. Woll, 
of Wisconsin, proposed a so-called American practical feeding 
ration, which calls for the following amount of digestible food 



222 A FEEDERS" GUIDE. 

materials in the daily ration of a dairy cow of an average weight 
of 1,000 pounds. 

Digestible protein 2.2 lbs. 

Digestible carbohydrates 13.5 lbs. 

Digestible fat 7 lbs. 

Total digestible matter 17.1 lbs. 

(protein + carbohydrates + fatX2i4:) 
Nutritive ratio 1 : 6.9 



FEEDING STANDARDS. 



223 



Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. 

(WolfC-Lehmann.) 

Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight. 



Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
SubRtances 



1. Steers at rest In stall 

" slightly worked 

" moderately worked 

" heavily worked 

2. Fattening steers, 1st period 

2nd " 

3d " 

3. Milch cows, daily milk yield, 11 lbs. 

" 16.5 " 
" 22 
' 27.6 " 

4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds 

finer " 

5. Breeding ewes, with lambs 

6. Fattening- sheep, 1st period 

2nd " 

7. Horses lightly worked 

" moderately worked 

" heavily worked. . . 

8. Brood sows, with pigs 

9. Fattening swine, 1st period 

2nd " 

3d " 

10. Growing cattle: 



Dairy Breeds. 

Av. Live Weight 

Age, Months. Per Head. 

2- 3 154 lbs 

3-6 309 •' 

6-12 507 " 

12-18 705 •' 

18-24 882 " 



lbs. 1 


lb,. 


IS 
22 

25 
28 


0.7 
1.4 
2.0 

2.8 


30 
30 
26 


2.5 
3.0 

2.7 


25 
27 
29 
32 


1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 


20 
23 


1.2 
1.5 


25 


2.9 


30 
26 


3.0 
3.5 


20 
24 
26 


1.5 
2.0 

2.5 


22 


2.5 


36 
32 
25 


4.5 
4.0 
2.7 


23 
24 
27 
26 
26 


4.0 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 



lbs. 

8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 

10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 

10.5 
12.5 

15.0 

18.0 
14.0 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

15.5 

25.0 
24.0 
18.0 



13.0 
12.S 
12.5 
12.5 
12.0 



lbs. 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 

0.5 
0.7 
0.7 

0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 

0.2 
0.3 

0.5 

0.5 
0.6 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 

0.4 

0.7 
0.5 
0.4 



2.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 



lbs. 

8.9 
12.1 
14.7 
17.7 

18.7 
19.2 
19.4 

12.3 
14.0 
16.7 
18.2 

12.2 
14.2 

19.1 

19.2 
19.4 

12.0 
14.5 
17.7 

19.0 

31.2 
29.2 
22.0 



1:11.8 

1: 7.7 

1: 6.5 

1: 5.3 

1: 6.5 

1: 5.4 

1: 6.2 

1: 6.7 

1: 6.0 

1: 5.7 

1: 4.5 

1: 9.1 

1: 8.5 

1: 5.6 



5.4 
4.5 



1: 7.0 

1: 6.2 

1: 6.0 

1: 6.6 



5.9 
6.3 
7.0 



21.8 
18.2 
15.7 
15.3 
14.2 



1: 4.5 

1: 5.1 

1: 6.8 

1: 7.5 

1: 8.5 



224 



A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 



Feeding Standards for Farm Animals — Continued. 



= 


=^r^==^=^^= 








Nutritive 
















(Digestible) 


» 












§ 


Substances 


s 












c 

o3 




a 








M 















3 
CO 


c 
1 




1 




as 










a 







K 




(U 

> 












n 


6 
















"S 


■a 


a 


a 


a 














a 






+.» 












o 




A 


4^ 


o 












H 


6 


o 


» 


e 


'' 










lbs. lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




11. 


Growing- cattle: 




















Beef Breeds. 




















Av. Live 


"Weig-ht 
















Ag-e, Months. 


Per Head. 
















2- 3 


165 


lbs 


23 


4.2 


13.0 


2.0 


20.0 


1:4.2 




3- 6 


331 




24 


3.5 


12.8 


1.5 


19.9 


1:4.7 




6-12 


551 


" 


25 


2.5 


13.2 


.0.7 


14.4 


1:6.0 




12-lS 


750 


" 


24 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


15.7 


1:6.8 




lS-24 


937 


** 


24 


1.8 


12.0 


0.4 


14.8 


1:7.2 


12. 


Growing- slieep: 




















W^ool Breeds. 


















4- 6 


60 


lbs 


25 


3.4 


15.4 


0.7 


20.5 


1:5.0 




6- S 


75 


" 


25 


2.8 


13.8 


0.6 


18.0 


1:5.4 




7-11 


84 


" 


23 


2.1 


11.5 


0.5 


14.8 


1:6.0 




11-15 


90 


" 


22 


1.8 


11.2 


0.4 


14.0 


1:7.0 




15-20 


99 


" 


22 


1.5 


10.8 


0.3 


13.0 


1:7.7 


13. 


Growing- sheep 
Mutton 


Breeds. 


















4- 6 


66 


lbs 


26 


4.4 


15.5 


0.9 


''2.1 


1:4.0 




6- 8 


84 


" 


26 


3.5 


15.0 


0.7 


20!2 


1:4.8 




8-11 


101 


" 


24 


3.0 


14.3 


0.5 


18.5 


1:5.2 




11-15 


121 


" 


23 


2.2 


12.6 


.0.5 


16.0 


1:6.3 




15-20 


154 


" 


22 


2.0 


12.0 


0.4 


15.0 


1:6.5 


14. 


Growing swine: 
Breeding 


Animals. 


















2- 3 


44 


lbs 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


38.0 


1:4.0 




3- 5 


99 


" 


35 


5.0 1 23.1 


0.8 


30.0 


1:5.0 




5- 6 


121 


" 


32 


3.7 


21.3 


0.4 


26.0 


1:6.0 




fi- 8 


176 


" 


28 


2.8 


18.7 


0.3 


22.2 


1:4.0 




S-12 


265 


*' 


25 


2.1 


15.3 


0.2 


17.9 


1:7.5 


15. 


Growing- fat pig-s: 


















2- 3 


44 


lbs 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


38.0 


1:4.0 




3- 5 


110 


" 


35 


5.0 


23.1 


o.s 


30.0 


1:5.0 




5- 6 


143 


" 


33 


4.3 


22.3 


0.6 


28.0 


1:5.5 




6- 8 


198 


" 


30 


3.6 


20.5 


0.4 


25.1 


1:6.0 




8-12 


287 




26 


3.0 


18.3 


0.3 


22.0 


1:6.4 



HOW TO FIGURE OUT RATIONS. 225 



How to Figure Out Rations. 

We shall use the practical American feeding ration as a basis 
for figuring out the food materials which should be supplied a 
dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds, in order to insure a maximum 
and economical production of milk and butter-fat. We shall 
suppose that a farmer has the following foods at his disposal: 
Corn silage, mixed timothy and clover hay, and wheat bran; and 
that he has to feed about forty pounds of silage per head daily, 
in order to have it last through the winter and spring. We will 
suppose that he gives his cows, in addition, five pounds of hay 
and about six pounds of bran daily. If we now look up in the 
tables given on pages 237 to 241, the amounts of digestible food 
components contained in the quantities given of these feeds, we 
shall have: 



Total 
Dry Mtr. 

40 lbs. corn silage 10.5 lbs. 

5 lbs. mixed hay 4.2 

6 lbs. wheat bran 5.3 .72 2.8 

20.0 1.42 12.1 1:8.5 



We notice that the ration as now given contains too little total 
digestible matter, there being a deficit of both digestible protein, 
carbohydrates and fat; it will evidently be necessary to supply 
at least a couple of pounds more of some concentrated feed, and 
preferably of a feed rich in protein, since the deficit of this 
component is proportionately greater than that of the other 
components. In selecting a certain food to be added and deciding 
on the quantities to be fed, the cost of different available foods 
must be considered. We will suppose that linseed meal can be 
bought at a reasonable price in this case, and will add two pounds 
thereof to the ration. We then have the following amounts of 
digestible matter in the ration: 



Digestible 


Nutr. 


Pro. Garb. & Fat 


Ratio. 


.48 lbs. 7.1 lbs. 




.22 .. 2.2 





226 A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 

Total Digestible Nutr. 

Dry Mtr. Pro. Carb. & Fat Ratio. 

Ration as above 20.0 lbs. 1.42 lbs. 12.1 lbs. 1:6.4 

2 lbs. oil meal (O. P.) 1.8 .62 1.0 

Total 21.8 2.04 13.1 . 1:6.4 

Amer. prac. feeding 
ration 2.2 14.9 1:6.9 

Wolff-Lehmann 

standard 29.0 2.5 14.1 1:5.7 

The new ration is still rather light, both in total and digestible 
food materials; for many cows it might prove effective as it is, 
while for others it would doubtless be improved by a further 
addition of some concentrated food medium rich in protein, or if 
grain feeds are high, of more hay or silage. The feeding rations 
are not intended to be used as infallible standards that must be 
followed blindly, nor could they be used as such. They are only 
meant to be approximate gauges by which the farmer may know 
whether the ration which he is feeding is of about such a com- 
position and furnishes such amounts of important food materials 
as are most likely to produce best results, cost of feed and re- 
turns in products as well as condition of animals being all con- 
sidered. 

In constructing rations according to the above feeding stand- 
ard, several points must be considered besides the chemical 
composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs; the stand- 
ard cannot be followed directly without regard to bulk and other 
properties of the fodder; the ration must not be too bulky, and 
still must contain a sufficient quantity of roughage to keep up 
the rumination of the animals, in case of cows and sheep, and 
to secure a healthy condition of the animals generally. The 
local market prices of cattle foods are of the greatest impor- 
tance in determining which foods to buy; the conditions in the 
different sections of our great continent differ so greatly in this 
respect that no generalizations can be made. Generally speaking, 
nitrogenous concentrated feeds are the cheapest feeds in the 
South and in the East, and flour-mill, brewery, distillery, and 
starch-factory refuse feeds the cheapest in the Northwest. 



GRAIN MIXTURES FOR DAIRY COWS. 



227 



The tables given on pages 236 to 240 will be found of great 
assistance in figuring out the nutrients in feed rations; the 
tables have been reproduced from a bulletin published by the 
Vermont Experiment Station, and are based upon the latest com- 
pilations of analysis of feeding stuffs. A few rations are given 
in the following as samples of combinations of different kinds ,of 
feed with corn silage that will produce good results with dairy 
cows. The rations given on page 193 may also be studied to 
advantage in making up feed rations with silage for dairy cows. 
The experiment stations or other authorities publishing the ra- 
tions are given in all cases. 

SAMPLE RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. 

Massachusetts Experiment Station. — Mixtures of grain mix- 
tures to be fed with one bushel of silage and hay, or with corn 
stover or hay. 



1 

100 lbs. bran. 

100 lbs. flour and middlings. 

150 lbs. gluten feed. 

Mix and feed 7 quarts dally. 


2 

100 lbs. bran or mixed feed. 

150 lbs. gluten feed. 

Mix and feed 9 quarts daily. 


3 
100 lbs. bran. 
100 lbs. flour middlings. 
100 lbs. gluten or cottonseed 

meal. 
Mix and feed 7 to S quarts daily. 

5 


4 

200 lbs. malt sprouts. 

100 lbs. bran. 

100 lbs. gluten feed. 

Mix and feed 10 to 12 qts. daily. 


100 lbs. cottonseed or gluten 

meal. 
150 lbs. corn and cob meal. 
100 lbs. bran. 
Mix and feed 7 to S quarts daily. 


6 

125 lbs. gluten feed. 

100 lbs. corn and cob meal. 

Mix and feed 5 to 6 quarts daily. 



New Jersey Experiment Station. — (1) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. 
gluten feed, 5 lbs. dried brewers' grains, 2 lbs. wheat bran. 

(2) 35 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs, mixed hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 
2 lbs. each of oil meal, gluten meal and hominy meal. 

(3) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. wheat bran, 
2 lbs. malt sprouts, 1 lb. each of cottonseed meal and hominy 
meal. 



228 A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. dried brewers' grain, 4 lbs. wheat 
bran, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

Maryland Experiment Station. — (1) 40 lbs, silage, 5 lbs. clover 
hay, 9 lbs. wheat middlings and 1 lb. gluten meal. 

(2) 30 lbs. silage, 8 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. cow pea hay. 3 lbs. 
bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal. 

Michigan Experiment Station. — (1) 40 lbs. silage, 8 lbs. mixed 
hay, 8 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

• (2) 30 lbs. silage, 5 lbs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. corn meal, 4 lbs. bran, 
2 lbs. cottonseed meal, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

(3) 50 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. bran, 4 lbs. corn 
meal, 3 lbs. oil meal. 

(4) 50 lbs. silage, 4 lbs. clover hay, 10 lbs. bran. 

Kansas Experiment Station. — (1) Corn silage 40 lbs., 10 lbs. 
prairie hay or millet, 4% lbs. bran, 5 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(2) 40 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. corn fodder, 4 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. 
Chicago gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(5) 40 lbs. corn silage 5 lbs. sorghum hay, 3 lbs. corn, li^ lbs. 
bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(4) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. millet, 4 lbs. corn, 1 lb. gluten 
meal, 5 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(5) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2i^ lbs. bran, 3 lbs. 
gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, iVz lbs. bran, 5 lbs. 
gluten ineal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(6I/2) 50 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. oat straw, 2 lbs. oats, 4 lbs. 
bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(7) 20 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 5 lbs. corn. 

(8) 15 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 5 lbs. kafir corn. 

(9) 20 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. alfalfa, 4 lbs. corn, 3 lbs. bran. 

(10) 40 lbs. corn sila,ge, 5 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn, 3 lbs. oats. 
2 lbs. O. P. linseed meal, 1 lb. cottonseed meal. 

Tennessee Experiment Station. — 50 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover or 



GRAIN MIXTURES FOR DAIRY COWS. 229 

cow pea hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 3 lbs. of corn, 2 lbs. cottonseed 
meal. 

North Carolina Experiment Station. — (1) 40 lbs. corn silage, 
10 lbs. cottonseed hulls, 5 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(2) 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. orchard grass hay, iVz lbs. cot- 
tonseed meal. 

(5) 50 lbs. com silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 5 
lbs. cottonseed hulls. 

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow pea vine hay. 

(5) 40 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 6 lbs. field peas 
ground. 

(6) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. cut corn fodder, 3 lbs. ground 
corn, 4 lbs. bran, 1 lb. cottonseed meal (ration fed at Biltmore 
Estate to dairy cows). Silage is fed to steers and cows, and corn, 
peas, teosinte, cow peas, millet and crimson clover are used as 
silage crops. These crops are put into the silo in alternate layers. 
"Will never stop using the silo and silage." 

South Carolina. — 50 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal, 12 lbs. cottonseed hulls. 

Georgia Experiment Station. — 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow 
pea hay, 5 lbs. bran. 

Ontario Agr. College. — 45 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. clover hay, 
8 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. barley. 

Nappan Experiment Station (Canada). — 30 lbs. corn silage, 20 
lbs. hay, 8 lbs. bran and meal. 

The criticism may properly be made with a large number of 
the rations given in the preceding, that it is only in case of low 
prices of grain or concentrated feeds in general, and with good 
dairy cows, that it is possible to feed such large quantities of 
grain profitably as those often given. In the central and north- 
western states it will not pay to feed grain heavily with corn at 
fifty cents a bushel and oats at thirty cents a bushel or more. In 
times of high prices of feeds, it is only in exceptional cases that 
more than six or eight pounds of concentrated feeds can be fed 
with economy per head daily. Some few cows can give proper 
returns for more than this quantity of grain even when this is 
high, but more cows will not do so. 



230 



A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 



The following rule for feeding good dairy cows is a safe one to 
be guided by: Feed as much roughage (succulent feeds like silage 
or roots, and hay) as the cows will eat up clean, and in addition, 
1 pounds of grain feed (concentrates) a day per head for every 
pound of butter fat they produce in a week (or one-third to one- 
fourth as many pounds as they give milk daily). 

The farmer should aim to grow protein foods like clover, 
alfalfa, peas, etc., to as large extent as practicable, and thvis reduce 
his feed bills. 



Average Composition of Silage Crops of Different Kinds, in 
Per Cent. 



Corn Silage — 

Mature corn 

Immature corn 

Ears removed 

Clover silage 

Alfalfa silage 

Soy bean silage , 

Cow pea vine silage 

Field-pea vine silage 

Corn cannery refuse husks 
Corn cannery refuse cobs.. 

Pea cannery refuse 

Sorghum silage 

Kafir corn silage 

Milo silage 

Corn-soy bean silage 

Millet-soy bean silage 

Rye silage 

Oat silage 

Apple pomace silage 

Cow-pea and soy bean mixed 

Brewers' grain silage 

Beet Pulp silage 



73.6 

79.1 

80.7 

72.0 

76.9 

74.2 

79.3 

50.0 

83.8 

74.1 

76.8 

76.1 

67.2 

74.6 

76.0 

79.0 

80.8 

71.4 

85.0 

69.8 

69.8 

90.9 



2.1 
1.4 
1.8 
2.6 
2.7 
2.8 
2.9 
3.6 

.6 

.5 
1.3 
1.1 
2.9 
1.8 
2.4 
2.8 
1.6 
2.0 

.6 
4.5 
1.2 

.3 



Crude 
Protein 



2.7 
1.7 
1.8 
4.2 
2.9 
4.1 
2.7 
5.9 
1.4 
1.5 
2.8 
.8 
2.1 
2.2 
2.5 
2.8 
2.4 
2.3 
1.2 
3.8 
6.6 
1.3 



Nitrogen 
Fiber Free 

Extract 



Ether 
Extract 



7.8 


12.9 1 


6.0 


11.0 i 


5.6 


9.5 ! 


8.4 


11.6 1 


8.3 


8.8 1 


9.7 


6.9 1 


6.0 


7.6 1 


13.0 


26.0 1 


5.2 


7.9 I 


7.9 


14.5 1 


6.5 


11.3 1 


6.4 


15.3 ! 


11.2 


15.2 1 


7.9 


12.7 1 


7.2 


11.1 I 


7.2 


7.2 1 


5.8 


9.2 I 


16.1 1 


7.1 I 


3.3 1 


8.8 1 


9.5 1 


11.1 1 


4.7 1 


15.6 1 


3.3 1 
1 


5.8 1 
1 



.6 
1.2 

.4 
2.2 
1.5 
1.6 
1.1 
1.7 
1.5 

.3 
1.4 

.7 

.8 
1.0 

.5 
1.1 
1.1 
1.3 
2.1 

.4 



The table shown above gives actual chemical analysis of 
the products mentioned and includes the entire contents of the 
various feeds. The following table, showing the average amount 



ANALYSIS OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



231 



of digestible nutrients in the more common American fodders, 
grains and by-products, is the table that should be used in formu- 
lating rations. The table gives the number of pounds of digestible 
nutrients contained in 100 lbs. of the feeds, and these figures can, 
therefore, be used in figuring out the amount of digestible 
nutrients in any given amount of a food material; it is by such 
methods that the tables given on pages 236 to 240 are obtained. 

Analysis of Feeding Stuffs. 

Table Showing Average Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in the 
More Common American Fodders, Grains and By-products. 

(Compiled by the Editors of Hoard's Dairyman, Fort Atkinson, 

Wis). 



NAMK OF FEED 



Digestible Nutrients in 101 Pounds 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



Ether 

Extract 

(Crude I'at) 



Green Fodders. 



mixed . 



Lbs. 

20.0 
20.7 
20.6 
29.2 
28.2 
16.4 
24.9 
37.8 
Rye Fodder I 23.4 



Pasture Grasses, 
Fodder Corn . . . 

Sorghum 

Red Clover 

Alfalfa 

Cow Pea 

Soy Bean 

Oat Fodder 



Rape 

Peas and Oats 
Beet Pulp 



Corn 
Com, 



Silage. 



14.0 

in.o 

10.2 



20.9 



Wisconsin analysis I 26.4 



Sorghum . , 
Red Clover 
Alfalfa . . . 
Cow Pea . . 
Soy Bean . 



23.9 

28.0 
27.5 
20.7 

2.5.8 



Lbs. 

2.5 
1.0 
0.6 
2.9 
3.9 
1.8 
3.2 
2.6 
2.1 
1..5 
1.8 
0.6 



0.9 
1.3 
0.6 
2.0 
3.0 
1..5 
2.7 



Lbs. 

10.2 

11.6 

12.2 

14.8 

12.7 

8.7 

11.0 

18.9 

14.1 

8.1 

7.1 

7.3 



11.3 
14.0 
14.9 
13.5 

8.5 
8.6 

8.7 



Lbs. 

0.5 
0.4 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 



0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
1.0 
1.9 
0.9 
1.3 



232 



A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



NAME OF FEED 



Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds 



Carbo 
hydrates 



Ether 
Extract 

(Crude P'at) 



Dry Fodders and Hay. 



Corn Fodder 

Corn Fodder, Wis. anal. 

Corn Stover 

Sorghum Fodder 

Red Clover 

Alfalfa 

Barley 

Blue Grass 

Cow Pea 

Crab Grass 

Johnson Grass 

Marsh Grass 

Millet 

Oat Hay 

Oat and Pea Hay 

Orchard Grass 

Prairie Grass 

Rep Top 

Timothy 

Timothy and Clover. . . . 

Vetch : . 

White Daisy 



Straw. 



Barley 
Oat . . 
Rye . . 
Wheat 



Roots and Tubers. 

Artichokes 

Beets, common 

Beets, sugar 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Sweet Potatoes 



Lbs. 

57.8 
71.0 
59.5 
59.7 

84.7 
91.6 
85.2 
78.8 
89.3 
82.4 
87.7 
88.4 
92.3 
91.1 
85.4 
90.1 
87.5 
91.1 
86.8 
85.3 
88.7 
85.0 



85.8 
90.8 
92.9 
90.4 



200 
13.0 
13.5 
11.4 

9.1 
11.7 
21.1 
11.4 

9.5 
29.0 



Lbs. 

2.5 
3.7 
1.7 
1.5 
6.8 

11.0 
6.2 
4.8 

10.8 
5.7 
2.4 
2.4 
4.5 
4.3 
9.2 
4.9 
3.5 
4.8 
2.8 
4.8 

12.9 
3.8 



0.7 
1.2 
0.6 
0.4 



2.0 
1.2 
1.1 
0.8 
1.1 
1.6 
0.9 
1.0 
1.0 
0.9 



Lbs. 

34.6 
40.4 
32.4 
37.3 
35.8 
39.6 
46.6 
37.3 
38.6 
39.7 
47.8 
29.9 
51.7 
46.4 
36.8 
42.3 
41.8 
46.9 
43.4 
39.6 
47.5 
40.7 



41.2 

38.6 
40.6 
36.3 



16.8 
8.8 

10.2 
7.8 
5.4 

11.2 

16.3 
8.1 
7.2 

22.2 



Lbs. 

1.2 
1.2 
0.7 
0.4 
1.7 
1.2 
1.5 
2.0 
1.1 
1.4 
0.7 
0.9 
1.3 
1.5 
1.2 
1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
1.4 
1.6 
1.4 
1.2 



0.6 
0.8 
0.4 
0.4 



0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 



ANALYSIS OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



233 



NAME OF FEED 



Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



Ether 

Extract 

(Crude Fat) 



Grain and By-Products. 

Barley 

Brewers' Grains, dry... 

Brewers' Grains, wet... 

Malt Sprouts 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat Bran 

Buckwheat Middlings . 
Corn 

Corn and Cob Meal...., 

Corn Cob 

Corn Bran 

Atlas Gluten Meal , 

Gluten Meal 

Germ Oil Meal 

Gluten Feed 

Hominy Chop 

Starch Feed, wet 

Cotton Seed _^ . , 

Cotton Seed Meal , 

Cotton Seed Hulls 

Cocoanut Meal 

Cow Peas 

Flax Seed 

Oil Meal, old process... 

Oil Meal,. new process.. 

Cleveland Oil Meal . . . . , 

Kafir Com 

Millet ' 

Oats 

Oat Feed or Shorts.... 

Oat Dust 

Peas 

Quaker Dairy Feed 

Rye 

Rye Bran 

Wheat 

Wheat Bran 

Wheat Middlings 

Wheat Shorts 



Lbs. 



S9, 

m 

24 

89 
87 
80, 
87, 
89, 
89. 
89. 
90. 
92. 
88. 
90, 
90. 
88. 
34. 
89. 
91. 
88. 
89, 
85. 
90. 
90. 
89. 
89, 
84. 
86. 
89. 
92. 
93. 
89. 
92. 
88, 
88. 
89, 
88. 
87. 



Lbs. 

8.7 

15.7 

3.9 

18.6 

7.7 

7.4 

22.0 

7.9 

6.4 

0.4 

7.4 

24.6 

32.1 

20.2 

23.3 

7.5 

5.5 

12.5 

37.2 

0.3 

15.6 

18.3 

20.6 

29.3 

28.2 

32.1 

7.8 

8.9 

9.2 

12.5 

8.9 

16.8 

9.4 

9.9 

11.5 

10.2 

12.6 

12.8 

12.2 



Lbs. 

65.6 
36.3 
9.3 
37.1 
49.2 
30.4 
33.4 
66.7 
63.0 
52.5 
59.8 
38.8 
41.2 
44.5 
50.7 
55.2 
21.7 
30.0 
16.9 
33.1 
38.3 
54.2 
17.1 
32.7 
40.1 
25.1 
57.1 
45.0 
47.3 
46.9 
.38.4 
51.8 
50.1 
67.6 
.50.3 
69.2 
38.6 
.53.0 
50.0 



Lbs. 

1.6 
5.1 
1.4 
1.7 
1.8 
1.9 
5.4 
4.3 
3.5 
0.3 
4.6 

11.5 
2.5 
8.8 
2.7 
6.8 
2.3 

17.3 
8.4 
1.7 

10.5 
1.1 

29.0 
7.0 
2.8 
2.6 
2.7 
3.2 
4.2 
2.8 
5.1 
0.7 
3.0 
1.1 
2.0 
1.7 
3.0 
3.4 
3.8 



234 



A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 
Average Weight of Concentrated Feeds. 



KIND OF FEED 



One Quart Equals 



One Pound Equals 



Barley Meal | 1.1 pounds. 

Beet Pulp, dried 0.(i 

Brewers' Grains, dried | O.G 

Corn and Cob Meal | 1.4 

Corn Bi'an I 0.5 

Corn Meal j 1.5 

Corn, whole | 1.7 

Cotton Seed Meal j 1.4 

Distillers' Grains, dried | 0.6 

Germ Oil Meal | 1.4 

Gluten Feed | 1.3 

Gluten Meal | 1.8 

Hominy Feed | 1.1 

H-O Dairy Feed 0.7 

Linseed Meal, old process....] 1.1 

Malt Sprouts | 0.6 

Oat Feed | 0.8 

Oats, ground | 0.7 

Oats, whole 1.1 

Quaker Dairy Feed 1.0 

Victor Corn and Oat Feed. . . .| 0.7 

Wheat Bran | 0.5 

Wheat Middlings, standard...] 0.8 

Wheat Middlings, flour | 1.2 

Wheat, whole I 1.9 



0.9 
1.7 
1.7 
0.7 
2.0 
0.7 
0.6 
0.7 
1.7 
0.7 
0.7 
O.G 
0.9 
1.4 
0.9 
1.7 
1.3 
1.4 
0.9 
1.0 
1.4 
2.0 
1.3 
0.8 
0.5 



quarts. 



SOILING CROPS. 



231 



Soiling Crops Adapted to Northern New England States. 

(Lindsey.) 

(For 10 cows' entire soiling.) 



Kind. 



Seeds 
per Acre. 



Time of 
Seeding. 



Area. 



Time of 
Cutting-. 



Rye 

Wheat 

Red clover . . 

Grass and 
clover .... 

Vetch and \ 

oats ; 

Peas and 
oats 

Barnyard 

millet I 

Soy bean (me- 
dium green) . 

Corn ] 

Hungarian . . . . 

Barley and f 

peas 1 



2 bu. Sept. 10-15 

2 bu " 10-15 

20 lbs IJul. 15-Au. 1 

V2 bu. red top. ) 

1 pk. timothy. > Sept. 
10 lbs. red clo. ) 

3 bu. oats I 

50 lbs. vetch. .! 1 



50 
IV2 bu. 
11/. bu. 
IV2 " 
1 peck 
1 " 



Can'd'. 
oats. . . 



18 quarts . . . . 

18 " 

18 " .,.. 

1 bu 

11/^ bu. peas. . 
114 bu. barley. 



April 20 
30 
April 20 

30 

10 
25 



May 



July 
Aug. 



20 Vs 

20 % 

30 Vg 

15 Vo 



May 20 -May 30 
June 1-June 15 
June 15-June 25 

June 15-June 30 

June 25-July 10 

July 10-July 20 

June 25-July 10 

July 10-July 20 
July 25-Aug. 10 
Aug. 10-Aug. 20 

Aug. 25-Sept. 15 
Aug. 25-Sept. 10 
Sept. 10-Sept. 20 
Sept. 20-Sept. 30 

Oct. 1-Oct. 20 



Time of Planting and Feeding Siloing Crops. 
(Phelps.) 



Kind of Fodder. 



10. 
11. 
12. 

13. 



Rye fodder 

Wheat fodder 

Clover 

Grass (from grass 
lands) 



Cats and peas. 



Hungarian 

Clover rowen 

(from 3) 

Soy beans (from 3).. 

Cow peas 

Rowen grass (from 

grass lands) 

Barley and peas 



Amount 

of Seed 

per Acre. 



21/2 to 3 bu, 
21/2 to 3 bu. 
20 lbs. 



2 bu. each. 

IV2 bu. 



1 bushel. 
1 



2 bu. each. 



Approxi- 
mate Time 
of Seeding. 



Sept. 
Sept. 
July 



April 
June 



1 

5-10 
20-30 



10 

20 

30 

1 



Approximate 
Time of 
Feeding. 



May 10-20 
May 20-June 5 
June 5-15 

June 15-25 
June 25-July 10 
July 10-20 
July 20-Aug. 1 
Aug. 1-10 



Aug. 10-20 

May 25 Aug. 20-Sept. 
June 5-10 Sept. 5-20 



Sept. 20-30 

Aug. 5-10 Oct. 1-30 



The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and 

regions under approximately similar conditions. 



236 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



In Varying W'elglits of Feed, in Pounds. 

Note. — These tables save calculations of percentages, since the 
weights and contents being given in pounds, it is only necessary to 
find the kind and desired amount of a certain feed, and the table 
gives the exact food contents in pounds, as in the first table, 15 lbs. 
of Green Oat Fodder contains 5.7 lbs. of dry matter, 0.36 lbs. of 
protein and 3.1 lbs. of carbohydrates. 



POUNDS OF 
FODDER. 



Grasses. 



2% 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 





C 


n^ 


<v 








o 


o^ 




H 





o m 

oh 



Pasture Grass, 
1:4.8 



Green Fodders. 



2V2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



Green Fodders. 



21/^ 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



Green Fodders. 



21/2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 . 
40 



0.5 


0.06 


1.0 


0.12 


2.0 


0.23 


3.0 


0.35 


4.0 


0.46 


5.0 


0.58 


6.0 


0.69 


7.0 


().H2 


8.0 


0.92 



0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.2 
2.8 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 



Gb 



5<^ 



a-o 



Timotliy Grass, 
1:14.3 



Green Fodder 
Corn, 1:11.2 



0.5 


0.03 


0.3 


1.0 


0.06 


0.6 


2.1 


0.11 


1.3 


3.1 


0.17 


1.9 


4.1 


0.22 


2.6 


5.2 


0.28 


3.2 


6.2 


kO.33 


3.9 


7.2 


0.39 


4.5 


8.3 


0.44 


5.2 



Oats and Peas, 
1:4.2 



0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.3 
5.3 
6.4 
7.5 
8.5 



0.07 
0.14 
0.27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1.08 



0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 



Corn Silage, 
1:14.3 



0.7 
1.3 
2.6 
4.0 
5.3 
6.6 
7.9 
9.2 
10.6 



0.03 
0.06 
0.13 
0.20 
0.26 
0.33 
0.39 
0.46 
0.52 



0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.3 
3.1 
3.9 
4.7 
5.5 
6.2 



1.0 

1.9 

3.8 

5.8 

7.7 

9.6 

11.5 

13.4 

15.4 



0.04 
0.08 
0.15 
0.23 
0.30 
0.38 
0.45 
0.53 
0.60 



0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.3 
5.4 
6.4 
7.5 
14.0 



Green Oat 
Fodder, 1:8.7 



0.9 

1.9 

3.8 

5.7 

7.6 

9..S 

11.3 

13.2 

15.1 



0.06 
0.12 
0.24 
0.36 
0.48 
0.60 
0.72 
0.84 
0.96 



0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.2 
5.2 
6.2 
7.3 
8.3 



Barley and 
Peas, 1:3.2 



0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.1 
5.2 
6.2 
7.2 
?.2 



0.07 
0.14 
0.28 
0.42 
0.56 
0.70 
0.84 
0.96 
1.12 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.6 



Com Stover 
Silage, 1:16.6 



0.5 
1.0 
1.9 
2.9 
3.9 
4.8 
5.8 
6.8 
7.7 



0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 



0.3 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 



>> 

u 

fit: 


1 
B 


CD 












5 a 


Ph 


g^ 





O <n 



Ky. 



Blue Grass, 
1:9.2 



0.9 


0.05 


0.5 


1.8 


0.10 


0.9 


3.5 


0.20 


1.8 


5.2 


0.30 


2.7 


7.0 


0.40 


3.7 


S.7 


0.50 


4.7 


10.5 


0.60 


5.5 


12.2 


0.70 


6.4 


14.0 


0.80 


7.3 



Green Rye 
Fodder, 1:7.2. 



0.6 


0.05 


1.2 


0.11 


2.3 


0.21 


3.5 


0.32 


4.7 


0.42 


5.9 


0.52 


7.0 


0.63 


8.2 


0.74 


9.4 


0.84 



0.4 
0.7 
1.5 
2.3 
3.0 
3.8 
4.5 
5.3 
6.0 



Red Clover 
(green), 1:5.7 



0.7 


0.07 


1.5 


0.15 


2.9 


0.29 


4.4 


0.44 


5.9 


0.58 


7.3 


0.73 


8.8 


0.87 


10.2 


1.02 


11.7 


1.16 



0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
4.9 
5.7 
6.6 



Clover Silage, 
1:4.7 



0.7 


0.07 


0.3 


1.4 


0.14 


0.6 


2.8 


0.27 


1.3 


4.2 


0.41 


1.9 


5.6 


0.54 


2.6 


7.0 


O.fiS 


3.2 


8.4 


0.81 


3.9 


9.8 


0.95 


4.5 


11.2 


1.08 


5.1 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 237 

Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds Continued. 



POUNDS OF 
FODDER. 



Roots. 



5 

10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



Roots. 



Milk. 



Hays. 



QC 



g^ 



o-S 



Potatoes, 
1:7.3 



21/2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



21/2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



0.5 


0.02 


1.1 


0.05 


2.1 


0.09 


3.2 


0.14 


4.2 


0.18 


,5.3 


0.23 


fi.3 


0.27 


7.4 


0.32 


8.4 


0.36 



0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.3 
3.1 
3.9 
4.7 
5.4 
6.2 



Mangel 
Wurtzels, 1:4.9 



0.2 


0.03 


0.4 


0.06 


0.9 


0.11 


1.4 


0.17 


1.8 


0.22 


2.3 


0.28 


2.7 


0.33 


3.2 


0.39 


3.6 


0.44 



0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
1.1 
1.4 
1.6 
1.9 
2.2 



Skim Milk, 
1:2.0 



2y2 

5 

71/2 
10 
121/2 

15 

17 Va 

20 

25 



0.2 


0.07 


0.5 


0.15 


0.9 


0.29 


1.4 


0.44 


1.9 


0.58 


2.4 


0.73 


2.8 


0.87 


3.2 


1.02 


3.7 


1.16 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.6 
1.8 
2.1 
2.4 



Mixed Hay, 
1:10.0 



2.1 


'o.„ 


4.2 


0.22 


fi.4 


0.33 


8.5 


0.44 


10.6 


0.55 


12.7 


0.66 


14.8 


0.77 


lfi.9 


0.88 


21.2 


1.10 



1.1 

2.2 
3.3 
4.4 
5.5 
6.6 
7.7 
8.8 
11.0 





d 


t) t- 


<D 


0) 









+j Co 


U 


(U 



>><u 



u-3 



Sugar Beets, 
1:6.8 



0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.7 

2.2 
2.7 
3.3 
3.8 
4.4 



0.3 


0.04 


0.7 


0.08 


1.4 


0.16 


2.0 


0.24 


2.7 


0.32 


3.4 


0.40 


4.1 


0.48 


4.7 


0.56 


5.4 


0.64 



Rutabagas, 
1:8.6 



0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.6 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 



0.03 
0.05 
0.10 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.35 
1.40 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.3 
1.7 
2.2 
2.6 
3.0 
3.4 



Buttermilk, 
1:1.7 



0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 



0.10 
0.19 
0.38 
0.57 
0.76 
0.95 
1.14 
1.33 
1.52 



0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.0 
1.3 
1.6 
1.9 
2.2 
2.6 



Timothy Hay, 
1:16.5 



.22 


0.07 


.43 


0.15 


.65 


0.21 


.87 


0.28 


1.09 


0.35 


1.30 


0.42 


1.52 


0.49 


1.74 


0.56 


2.17 


0.70 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 





d 


Q ^ 


0) 


Sd 





^ 


,°^ 




H 





o w 



Carrots, 
1:9.6 



0.3 


0.03 


0.5 


0.05 


1.1 


0.10 


1.6 


0.15 


2.3 


0.20 


2.9 


0.25 


3.4 


0.30 


4.0 


0.35 


4.6 


0.40 



0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.9 
3.4 
3.8 



Turnips, 
1:7.7 



0.2 


0.03 


0.2 


0.5 


0.05 


0.4 


1.0 


0.10 


0.8 


1.4 


0.15 


1.2 


1.9 


0.20 


1.5 


2.4 


0.25 


1.9 


2.9 


0.30 


2.3 


3.3 


0.35 


2.7 


3.8 


0.40 


3.1 



Whey, 
1:8.7 



0.2 


0.02 


0.1 


0.3 


0.03 


0.3 


0.6 


0.06 


0.5 


0.9 


0.09 


O.S 


1.2 


0.12 


1.0 


1.5 


0.15 


1.3 


1.9 


0.18 


1.6 


2.2 


0.21 


1.8 


2.5 


0.24 


2.1 



Ky. Blue Grass 
Hay, 1:10.6 



1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
3.9 
4.9 
5.9 
6.9 



1.9 


0.09 


3.7 


0.19 


5.6 


0.28 


7.4 


0.37 


9.2 


0.46 


11.1 


0.56 


13.0 


0.65 


14.S 


0.74 


18.5 


0.93 
1 



9.9 



238 READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds. — Continued. 



POUNDS OF 
FODDER. 



Hays. 



5 

71/2 
10 
121/. 
15 

171/2 
20 
25 



Hays, etc. 



Dry Fodder. 



21/2 
5 

7y2 

10 

121/4 

15 

i7y2 
20 

25 



Grains. 



0.^ 



og 
H 






Oat Hay, 
1:9.9 



21/2 

5 

71/2 
10 

121/2 
15 

171/2 
20 
25 



M 
V2 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

71/2 
10 



2.3 


0.10 


4.fi 


0.21 


6.8 


0.31 


9.1 


0.41 


1.4 


0.51 


3.7 


0.62 


«.o 


0.72 


S.2 


0.82 


2.8 


1.03 



1.0 
2.0 
3.0 

4.0 
5.1 
6.1 
7.1 
8.1 
10.2 



Red Clover 
Hay, 1:5.9 



2.1 


0.18 


4.2 


0.36 


6.4 


0.53 


8.5 


0.71 


10.6 


0.89 


12.7 


1.07 


14.8 


1.24 


16.9 


1.42 


21.2 


1.78 



1.0 
2.1 

3.2 
4.2 
5.2 
6.3 
7.3 
8.3 
10.5 



Corn Fodder, 
1 :14.3 



1.4 

2.9 

4.3 

5.8 

7.2 

8.7 

10.1 

11.6 

14.5 



0.06 
0.13 
0.19 
0.25 
0.32 
0.38 
0.44 
0.50 
0.63 



0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
5.4 
6.2 
7.1 
8.9 



Corn Meal, 
1:11.3 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.08 


1.7 


0.13 


2.6 


0.19 


3.4 


0.25 


4.3 


0.32 


6.4 


0.48 


8.5 


0.63 



0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.4 
2.1 
2.9 
3.6 
5.4 
7.1 



^ 



5rt 



li^ 



Oat and Pea 
Hay, 1:4.1 



2.2 

4.4 

6.6 

8.9 

11.1 

13.3 

15.5 

17.7 

22.1 



0.28 
0.56 
0.84 
1.12 
1.40 
1.68 
1.96 
2.24 
2.80 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 



Alslke Clover 
Hay, 1:5.0 



2.3 
4.5 

6.8 
9.0 
11.3 
13.5 
15.8 
18.1 
22.6 



0.21 
0.42 
0.63 
0.84 
1.05 
1.26 
1.47 
1.68 
2.10 



1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 
5.3 
6.3 
7.4 
8.4 
10.6 



Corn Stover, 
1 :23.6 



1.5 


0.04 


3.0 


0.07 


4.5 


0.11 


6.0 


0.14 


7,5 


0.18 


9.0 


0.21 


10.5 


0.25 


12.0 


0.28 


15.0 


0.35 



0.8 
1.7 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
5.0 
5.8 
6.6 
8.3 



Corn and Cob 
Meal, 1:13.9 



0.2 


0.01 


0.4 


0.02 


0.9 


0.05 


1.7 


0.10 


2.6 


0.14 


3.4 


0.19 


4.3 


0.24 


6.4 


0.36 


8.5 


0.48 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 

2.0 
2.7 
3.4 
5.1 
6.7 



0^; 



.See 



h 



O tc 



Hungarian, 
1 :10.0 



2.1 


0.12 


1.2 


4.2 


0.25 


2.4 


6.3 


0.37 


3.5 


8.4 


0.49 


4.9 


10.4 


0.62 


6.2 


12.5 


0.74 


7.4 


14.6 


0.86 


8.6 


16.7 


0.98 


9.8 


20.8 


1.23 


12.3 


Oat Straw, 


1:38.3 



2.3 


0.03 


1.2 


4.6 


0.06 


2.3 


6.8 


0.09 


3.5 


9.1 


0.12 


4.6 


11.4 


0.15 


5.8 


13.9 


0.18 


6.9 


16.0 


0.21 


8.1 


18.2 


0.24 


9.2 


22.7 


0.30 


11.5 



Wheat Straw, 
1 :95.0 



2.3 


0.01 


4.5 


0.02 


fi.X 


0.03 


9.0 


0.04 


11.3 


0.05 


13.5 


0.06 


15.8 


0.07 


18.1 


0.08 


22.6 


0.10 



0.9 
1.9 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
5.6 
6.5 
7.4 
9.3 



Oats, 
1:6.2 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.05 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.18 


2.7 


0.28 


3.6 


0.37 


4.5 


0.46 


6.7 


0.69 


8.9 


0.92 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.7 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 239 

Varying? W^elglits of Feed in Pounds. — Continued. 



POUNDS OP 
FODDER. 



By Products. 



V2 
1 
2 

3 . 

4 . 
5 

rV2 ■ 
10 



By Products. 



By Products. 



P^- 






■a . 
O m 



Barley, 
1:8.9 



1/2 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

10 



% 0.2 I 0.02 

Va- 0.4 10.04 

1 0.9 I 0.09 

2 1.8 I 0.18 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.17 


2.7 


0.26 


S.fi 


0.35 


4.5 


0.44 


fi.7 


0.65 


8.9 


0.87 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 



"Wheat 3Iiddl- 
ings, 1:4.6 



0.2 


0.03 


0.4 


0.06 


0.9 


0.13 


1.8 


0.25 


2.6 


0.38 


3.5 


0.50 


4.4 


0.63 


6.6 


0.94 


8.8 


1.25 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 



Rye, 

1:7.8 



3 
4 
5 

71/2 
10 



Byproducts. 



1/2. 



2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 



0.27 
0.36 
0.46 
0.67 
0.89 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 



Cottonseed 
Hulls, 



1 

2 . 

3 . 

4 . 

5 . 
71/2. 

10 . 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.1 
1.5 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 



fi^- 






o m 

^ 0) 



Barley Screen- 
ing's, 1:7.7 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.17 


2.6 


0.26 


3.5 


0.34 


4.4 


0.43 


6.6 


0.65 


8.8 1 0.86 1 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 
3.3 
5.0 
6.6 



Wheat Screen- 
ings, 1:5.2 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.05 


0.9 


0.10 


1.8 


0.20 


2.7 


X).29 


3.5 


0.39 


4.4 


0.49 


6.6 


0.74 


8.8 


0.98 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.8 
5.1 



Rye Bran, 
1:5.1 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.5 
4.4 



0.03 
0.06 
0.12 
0.25 
0.37 
0.49 
0.62 



6.6 I 0.92 
8.8 I 1.23 



0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.5 
3.1 
4.6 
6.3 



Linseed Meal 
o. p., 1:1.5 



0.2 


0.08 


0.5 


0.15 


0.9 


0.31 


1.8 


0.62 


2.7 


0.92 


3.6 


1.23 


4.9 


1.54 


6.8 


2.31 


9.0 


3.08 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 



fi^ 






O 10 



AVheat Bran, 
1:3.8 



0.2 


0.03 


0.4 


0.06 


0.9 


0.12 


1.8 


0.24 


2.6 


0.36 


3.5 


0.48 


4.4 


0.60 


6.6 


0.90 


8.S 


1.20 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 



Red-dog Flour, 
1:3.3 



0.2 


0.04 


0.5 


0.09 


0.9 


0.18 


1.8 


0.36 


2.7 


0.53 


3.6 


0.71 


4.6 


0.89 


6.8 


1.34 


9.1 


1.78 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 



Cottonseed 
Meal, 1:1.0 



0.2 


1 
0.10 


0.5 


0.20 


0.9 


0.40 


1.8 


O.SO 


2.9 


1.20 


3.7 


1.60 


4.6 


2.00 


6.9 


3.00 


9.2 


4.00 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 



Linseed Meal 
n. p., 1:1.3 



0.2 


0.08 


0.4 


0.16 


o.n 


0.32 


1.8 


0.65 


2.7 


0.97 


3.6 


1.30 


4.5 


1.62 


6.7 


2.43 


8.9 


3.24 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.3 
1.7 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 



240 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Varying ll'^eights of Feed in Pounds. — Continued. 



POUNDS OF 
FODDER. 



By Products. 



M 
Vz 

\ 

2 

3 

4 

5 

71/2 
10 



By Produets. 



By Produets. 






o w 



Flax Meal, 
1:1.4 



0.2 


0.08 


0.4 


0.16 


0.9 


0.32 


1.9 


0.64 


2.7 


0.96 


.S.6 


1.28 


4.5 


1.60 


6.7 


2.40 


8.9 


3.21 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.3 
1.7 
2.2 
3.3 
4.3 



Vz 
1 
2 

3 
4 
5 

7y2 
10 



1/4 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 

7% 
10 



Gluten Feed 
(Buffalo), 1:2.4 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 



0.06 
0.12 
0.23 
0.47 
0.70 
0.93 



4.7 I 1.17 

6.8 I 1.74 
9.0 I 2.33 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.9 



Atlas Gluten 
Meal, 1:2.6 



0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
4.9 
6.5 



0.2 


0.06 


0.5 


0.12 


0.9 


0.25 


1.8 


0.49 


2.8 


0.74 


3.7 


0.98 


4.6 


1.23 


6.9 


1.85 


9.2 


2.46 



Oh 






Gluten Meal 
(Chi.). 1:1.5 




Hominy Chop, 
1:9.2 



0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 



0.02 
0.04 
0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.35 
0.44 
0.65 
0.87 



0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.4 
3.2 
4.0 
6.0 
8.0 



Malt Sprouts, 
1:2.2 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 



0.05 
0.09 
0.19 
0.37 
0.56 
0.74 
0.93 
1.40 
1.86 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 



^b 






o5 



Gluten Meal 
(Cr'm.), 1:1.7 



0.2 


0.07 


0.4 


0.15 


0.9 


0.30 


1.8 


0.59 


2.7 


0.89 


3.6 


1.19 


4.5 


1.49 


6.7 


2.23 


9.0 


2.97 

1 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 
3.9 
5.1 



Dried Breiver's 
Grains, 1:3.0 



0.2 


0.04 


0.1 


0.5 


0.08 


0.3 


0.9 


0.16 


0.5 


1.8 


0.31 


0.9 


2.8 


0.47 


1.4 


3.7 


0.63 


1.9 


4.6 


0.79 


2.4 


6.9 


1.18 


3.5 


9.2 


1.57 


4.7 



Pea Meal, 
1:3.2 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 



0.04 
0.08 
0.17 
0.33 
0.50 
0.67 
0.86 
1.26 
1.68 



0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.6 
2.1 
2.7 
4.0 
5.3 



GLOSSARY. 

Ad libitum. At pleasure; in case of feeding farm animals all 
they will eat of a particular feeding stuff. 

Albuminoids. A group of substances of the highest importance 
in feeding farm animals, as they furnish the material from which 
flesh, blood, skin, wool, casein of milk, and other animal products 
are manufactured. Another name for albuminoids is flesh-forming 
substances or protein. 

Ash. The portion of a feeding stuff which remains when it is 
burned, the incombustible part of feeds. The ash of feeding stuffs 
goes to make the skeleton of animals, and in the case of milch 
cows a portion thereof goes into the milk as milk ash. 

The Babcock test. This test, by which the per cent, of butter 
fat in milk and other dairy products can be accurately and quickly 
determined, was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. Babcock of Wiscon- 
sin Agricultural College. 

Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms. They are widely 
diffused in nature, and multiply with marvelous rapidity. Certain 
species are active agents in fermentation, while others appear 
to be the cause of certain infectious diseases. 

Balanced ration. A combination of feeding stuffs, containing 
the various nutrients in such proportions and amounts as will 
nourish the animals for twenty-four hours, with the least waste 
of nutrients. 

By-products. A secondary product of an industry; cottonseed 
meal is a by-product of the cotton oil industry; skim milk and 
butter milk are by-products of butter making. 

Carbohydrates (or carbhydrates). A group of nutrients rich in 
carbon and containing oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion in 
which they form water. The most important carbohydrates found 
in feeding stuffs are starch, sugar, gums and fiber (cellulose.) 

Carbon. A chemical element, which with the elements of 

water, makes up the larger part of the dry matter of plants and 

animals. 

241 



242 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. 

Carbonic acid. A poisonous gas arising from the combustion 
of coal or wood. It is formed in all kinds of fermentations and 
therefore occurs in deep silos in the siloing of fodders. 

Casein. The protein substance of milk which is coagulated 
by rennet or acids. 

Cellulose. See fiber. 

Concentrates. The more nvitritious portion of the rations of 
farm animals embracing such feeding stuffs as wheat bran, corn, 
oil meal, etc.; synonymous with grain feeds, or concentrated feeds. 

Corn fodder or fodder corn. Stalks of corn which are grown 
for forage and from which the ears or nubbins have not been re- 
moved. 

Corn stover or stalks. The dry stalks of corn from which the 
ears have been removed. 

Crude fiber. See Fiber. 

Digestible matter. The portion of feeding stuffs which is di- 
gested by animals, i. e., brought in solution or semi-solution by 
the digestive fluids, so that it may serve as nourishment for the 
animal and furnish material for the production of meat, milk, 
wool, eggs, etc. 

Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining after the 
water contained therein has been removed. 

Ensilage. An obsolete word for silage. Used as a verb, like- 
wise obsolete, for to silo; to ensile also sometimes incorrectly 
used for the practice of placing green fodders into a silo. 

Enzyme. An unorganized or chemical compound of vegetable 
or animal origin, that causes fermentation, as, pepsin or rennet. 

Ether extract. The portion of a feeding stuff dissolved by 
ether; mainly fat or oil in case of concentrated feeding stuffs; in 
coarse fodders, fat, mixed with a number of substances of uncer- 
tain feeding value, like wax, chlorophyll (the green coloring matter 
of plants), etc. 

Fat. See ether extract. 

Feed unit. A quantity of different feeding stuffs that has been 
found to produce similar results in feeding farm animals as one 



DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. 243 

pound of grain (corn, barley, wheat or rye). For list of feed units, 
see page 219. 

Feeding standard. A numerical expression of the amount of 
various digestible substances in a combination of feeding stuffs 
best adapted to give good results as regards production of animal 
products, like beef, pork, milk, etc. 

Fiber. The frame work forming the walls of cells of plants. 
It is composed of cellulose and lignin, the latter being the woody 
portion of plants and wholly indigestible. 

Glucose or fruit sugar. The form of sugar found in fruits, 
honey, etc., also in the alimentary canal. 

Indian corn. Zea mays, the great American cereal and fodder- 
producing plant. 

Hydrogen. A chemical element, a gas. Combined with oxygen 
it forms water, with oxygen and carbon it forms carbohydrates 
and fat; Avith oxygen, carbon and nitrogen (with small amounts 
of sulphur and phosphorus) it forms the complex orga^nic nitro- 
genous substances known as protein or albuminoid substances. 

Legumes. Plants bearing seeds in pods and indirectly capable 
of fixing the free nitrogen of the air, so that it becomes of value 
to the farmer and will supply nitrogenous food substances to 
farm aniinals. Examples, the different kinds of clover, alfalfa, 
peas, beans, vetches, etc. Of the highest importance agriculturally 
as soil renovators, and in supplying farm-grown protein foods. 

Maintenance ration. An allowance of feed sufficient to main- 
tain a resting animal in body weight so that it will neither gain 
nor lose weight. 

Nitrogen. A chemical element, making up four-fifths of the 
air. The central element of protein. See under hydrogen. 

Nitrogen -free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff remain- 
ing when water, fat, protein, fiber, and ash are deducted. It in- 
cludes starch, sugar, pentosans, and other substances. It is so 
called because it does not contain any nitrogen. 

Nitrogenous substances. Substances containing nitrogen 
(which see). 

Nutrient. A food constituent or group of food constituents 
capable of nourishing animals. 



244 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. 

Net nutrients. The portion of the digested part of the food 
that remains after the amounts required for mastication, digestion 
and assimilation have been used up. It is this portion only that is 
of real value to animals and furnish material for building up of 
tissue or elaboration of animal products. 

Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible protein to the 
sum of digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration, the per cent, 
of fat being multiplied by 2%, and added to the per cent, of 
carbohydrates (fiber plus nitrogen-free extract). 

Organic matter. The portion of the dry matter which is de- 
stroyed on combustion (dry matter minus ash). 

Oxygen. A chemical element found in a free state in the air. 
of which it makes up about one-fifth, and in combination of hydro- 
gen in water; oxygen is also a rarely-lacking component of or- 
ganic substances. See carboinydrates and hydrogen. 

Protein. A general name for complex organic compounds 
mainly made up from the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and 
nitrogen. Crude protein inckides all organic nitrogen compounds, 
while true protein or albumenoids (which see) only includes such 
nitrogenous substances in feeding stuffs as are capable of forming 
muscle and other tissue in the animal body. 

Ration. The amount of feed that an animal eats during twen- 
ty-four hours. 

Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, including such 
feeding stuffs as hay, silage, straw, com fodder, roots, etc. Con- 
centrated feeding stuffs are sometimes called grain -feeds or con- 
centrates, in contradistinction to roughage. 

Silage. The succulent feed taken out of a silo. Formerly 
called ensilage. 

Silo. An airtight structure used for the preservation of green, 
coarse fodders in a succulent condition. As a verb, to place green 
fodders in a silo. 

Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a stable or 
enclosure, with fresh grass or green fodders, as corn, oats, rye, 
Hungarian grass, etc. 

Starch. One of the most common carbohydrates in feeding 



DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. 245 

stuffs, insoluble in water, but readily digested and changed to 
sugar in the process of digestion. 

Succulent feeds. Feeding stuffs containing considerable water, 
like green fodder, silage, roots and pasture. 

Summer silage. Silage intended to be fed out during the sum- 
mer and early fall to help out short pastures. 

Summer silo. A silo used for the making of summer silage. 



CONCLUSION. 

In conclusion we desire to state that the object of tliis book is 
to place before the farmer, dairyman and stockman such informa- 
tion as will be valuable and pi'actical, in as concise and plain a 
manner as possible, and to make a plea in behalf of the silo as an 
improver of the financial condition of the farmer. That the silo 
is a prime factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of 
doubt. The silo is not the sum total in itself, but as an adjunct, 
and, in the case of dairying, a necessary adjunct to successful and 
profitable methods, its value is difficult to overestimate. 

One of the greatest values of the silo is that as an innovation 
it becomes a stepping-stone to better methods in general; it stim- 
ulates its owner and spurs him on to see just how good and far- 
reaching results he can obtain from his revised system of manage- 
ment. It invites a little honest effort, and coupled with this it 
never fails. It enables its owner not only to do what he has been 
unable to do before, but things he has done without its help the 
silo enables him to do at less cost than before. The solution of 
the problem of cost of manufacture is necessary to every success- 
ful producer, and as 'the proposition is constantly changing, the 
solutions of our forefathers, or even of a generation ago, no longer 
avail. The silo is not an enticing speculation by means of which 
something can be gotten out of nothing, but a sound business 
proposition, and has come to stay. The voices of thousands of our 
best farmers and dairymen sing its praises, because it has brought 
dollars into their pockets, and increased enjoyment to them in 
their occupations and their homes. 

Have you cows? Do you feed stock? Do you not need a silo? 
Is it not worthy of your best thought and consideration? Tou owe 
it to yourself to make the most you can out of the opportunities 
before you. DO IT NOW! 



246 



INDEX 



PAGE. 

Acreage required for filling silos 26 

Advantages of the silo 11, 203 

Alfalfa silage 150 

All-metal silos 105-108 

Analyses of feeding stuffs 231 

Animal body, composition of the 212 

Approximate daily ration of silage 29 

Ash 214 

Average composition of silage crops 230 

Bagasse, sorghum, for silage 154 

Ballard octagonal silo 72-75 

Beef cattle, silage for 118-194 

Beef supply for United States 119 

Beets, cost of, per acre 208 

Beet-pulp silage 156-166 

Blower elevators , 185 

Bluegrass pastures of the South 115 

Bottom of the silo 32 

Brick lined silos 50 

Brick silos 102-103 

Building up fertility in the South 137 

Broom corn for silage 156 

Cactus, spineless, for silage 168 

Canada thistles for silage ir)8 

Cane, Japanese, for silage 169 

Capacity of round silos 28 

Carbonic acid poisoning in silos, danger from 110, 185 

Cattle, daily silage ration for 29 

Cement block silos 93-98 

247 



248 INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Cement block silos, how made, reinforcing, etc., of 93-98 

Cement lining, how to maintain 94, 102 

Cement stave silos ,- 98 

Certified milk, silage in production of 192 

Chart showing fertility removed from soil 132 

Chemical composition of silage 230 

Circles, circumferences, and areas of 67-68 

Clover silage 146, 149 

Clover silage, cost of 147 

Clover, time of cutting for the silo 148 

Clover, yield per acre 148 

Comparative cost of producing silage 207-209 

Comparative feeding value of corn, kaflr and cane 125 

Comparative losses in dry curing 15 

Composition of the animal body 212 

Composition of silage crops 250 

Composition of feeding stuffs 214 

Conclusion 246 

Concrete monolithic silos 82-89 

Concrete silos 82-89 

Concrete silos, forms used for making 87-89 

Connecting roiand silos with barn 69 

Conserving soil fertility with silage system 130-138 

Corn, cutting of, in the field 173 

Corn land, preparation of 139 

Com, methods of planting 144 

Corn silage vs. fodder corn 207 

Corn silage vs. hay 205 

Corn silage vs. roots 204 

Corn, siloing of, "ears and all" 176 

Corn, see also Indian corn and Fodder corn. 

Corn, time of cutting for silo 142 

Cost of beets per acre 208 

Cost of corn silage 207-210 

Cost of silos 75-77 

Covering silage 186 

Cow-pea silage 151 

Crops for the silo 139-159 

Crude fiber 215 

Cutter and power, size of 180-182 



INDEX. 249 

PAGE. 

Definition of terms used 212, 241 

Description of "Ohio" silage cutters 180, 257-264 

Devil grass for silage 155 

Different types of silo structures 30 

Digestibility of foods 217 

Digestible dry matter in different feeding stuffs 236-240 

Doors for silos 62-63 

Doorways, continuous, for block silos 96 

Doorways, continuous, for cement silos 87 

Drouth, silo in times of 113, 114 

Dry matter in corn at different stages 145 

Ears and all, siloing of corn 176 

Economy of storage 17 

Elevators, pneumatic 181-184 

Ensilage, see Silage. 

Estimating of materials for silos 78-80 

Feeders' guide, etc 212 

Feeding of silage 190 

Feeding standards 220-222 

Feeding stuffs, composition of 213 

Feeding value of corn, kafir and cane 125 

Fern brake for silage 158 

Fertility chart 132 

Fertility in 100 lbs. of beef 136 

Fertility in one ton of butter 136 

Fertility in the South 137 

Feterita for silage 154 

Field-curing of fodder corn, losses in 12-15 

Filling of silo 173 

Floor plan of silos and model barn 51 

Food from thistles 19, 158 

Food ingredients, increase in 143 

Forming the plate 38 

Forming the sill 35 

Forms for building silos 89 

Foundation for silos 32 

Fox tail for silage 155 

Freezing of silage 67, 107, 188 



250 INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Georgia Station results 129 

Grain mixtures for dairy cows 225 

Guide, a feeders' 212 

Gurler silo ,- 46-48 



Harvey system of reinforcement 98 

Hauling- corn from field, rack or sled for 174 

Hills or drills, planting of corn in 144 

History of the silo H 

Home-made silos, Ballard "2 

Horizontal girts, silos with 73 

Horizontal reinforcement for concrete silos 86 

Horses, daily silage ration for 29 

Horses, silage for 196 

How to build a silo 21 

How to feed silage 190 

How to figure out rations 225 

How to place frame on the foundation 52 

Hurst system of reinforcement I'7 

Hy-Rib and Metal-Lath reinforced silos 90 



Illinois Station results 122 

Increase in number of silos 8 

Indian corn 139 

Indian corn, chemical changes in 142 

Indian corn, increase in food ingredients from tasseling to 

ripeness 143 

Indian corn, methods of planting 144 

Indian corn, see also Corn and Fodder Corn. 

Indian- corn, soil adapted for 139 

Indian com, varieties of, to be planted for the silo 140 

Indiana Station results 123 

Introduction 7 

Iowa silo, the 101 

Iowa Station results 126 



Japanese cane for silage 169 

Johnson grass for silage 156 



INDEX. 251 

PAGE. 
Kafir for silage 5^55 -^qq 

Kale for silage j 55 

Kansas Station results 125 

King or Wisconsin silo 3-^ 

Late summer drouths I9 

Lining for silos 38-40 

Location of the silo 30 

Losses in dry curing 12-13 

Losses in siloing process 14 

Losses in siloing alfalfa 15 

Low wagons for hauling corn I74 

Lucerne, see Alfalfa. 

Materials for the silo 55 

Metal bucket, chain elevators 180 

Metal-lath silos 90-92 

Milch cows, silage for 190 

Milch cows, silage rations for 193 

Milo for silage 153, 160 

Mineral matter 212 

Miscellaneous silage crops 156-159 

Missouri Station results 121 

Modification of "Wisconsin" silo 45 

Monolithic concrete or cement silos 83 

Mules, silage for 198 

Nebraska Station results 121 

Night pasturing and summer silo 114 

Nitrogen-free extract 215 

No danger from late summer drouths 19 

No danger of rain 17 

North Carolina Station results 122 

Number of silos 8 

Number of staves required for stave silos 67 

Nutritive ratio 218 

Oats and peas for silage 157 

Oats, wheat and rye for silage . . 157 



252 INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Octagonal silos 69-75 

"Ohio" silage cutters, description of 180, 257-264 

Opinions of recognized leaders 209 

Painting the silo lining 44-45 

Patented cement blocks 97-98 

Patented forms for silos 89 

Peanuts for silage 155 

Peas and oats for silage 157 

Pennsylvania Station results 121 

Pit or underground silos 108-110 

Plastered round wooden silos 46-47 

Planting corn, methods of 144 

Planting com, thickness of 144 

Pneumatic elevators 181 

"Poultrymen's silos" 203 

Poultry, silage for 203 

Preparation of corn land 139 

Preservation of silos 80 

Protection against freezing, stave silo 67 

Protein 214 

Rack, low-down, for hauling corn 174 

Rate of feeding from gilos of different diameters 29 

Rate of feeding silage from surface .28, 29 

Ration of silage, daily 29 

Rations, how to figure out 225 

Rations, silage, for dairy cows 193 

Ready reference tables 236-240 

Reinforced concrete silo construction 84-90 

Reinforcement for concrete silos 86 

Reinforcing for stone, brick or cement silos 84, 86 

Relative value of feeding stuffs 217 

Restoring fertility in the South 137 

Robertson's silage mixture 152 

Renovation of Tennessee blue grass pastures 115 

Roof for the silo 39, 40, 57, 64, 97. 107 

Round silos 31-69 

Russian thistles for silage 158-16f5 

Rye, wheat and oats for silage 157 



INDEX. 253 

PAGE. 

Saskatchewan Station results 124 

Setting studding for doors 36 

Setting the studding 33 

Sheep, daily silage ration for 29 

Sheep, silage for 198-202 

Shoemaker farm silos 174 

Silage, alfalfa 150 

Silage and soil fertility 130-138 

Silage, approximate daily ration of 29 

Silage cart 191 

Silage, cheinical composition of 230 

Silage, clover 146 

Silage, cost of 125, 147, 207-210 

Silage, Cow Pea 151 

Silage crops 139 

Silage crops for semi-arid regions and for South 160 

Silage crops for the South 169 

'Silage. depth to feed, daily 28, 29 

Silage-fed beef cattle in the South 129 

Silage, feeding of 190 

Silage for beef cattle 118, 194 

Silage for horses 195 

Silage for milch cows 189, 193 

Silage for mules 198 

Silage for poultry 202 

Silage for sheep 197 

Silage for swine 201 

Silage, freezing of 67, 107, 188 

Silage from frosted corn 188 

Silage, how to feed 190 

Silage, how to make 173 

Silage, quantities of, required for different herds 26, 29 

Silage, rations for milch cows 193 

Silage — Robertson's Silage Mixture 152 

Silage, sorghum, milo and kafir 153, 160 

Silage spoils quickly in summer 117 

Silage truck 1^1 

Silage, use of, in beef production 118, 194 

Silage, steamed 1*° 

Silo helps reclaim blue grass pastui'es 115 



254 INDEX. 

PAGE, 

Silo must be air-tight 21 

Silo must be deep 22 

Silo must have smooth perpendicxilar walls 22 

Silo sheeting and siding : 38 

Silo walls must be rigid and strong 23 

Silo, summer Ill 

Silo, surplus crops stored in 114 

Silo, the Ballard octagonal 72-75 

Silo, the Iowa 101 

Silos, acreage to fill 26 

Silos, all-metal 105-108 

Silos, brick 102-103 

Silos, brick lined 50 

Silos, cement block 93-98 

Silos, cement stave 98 

Silos, concrete 82-89 

Silos, cost of 45, 46, 48, 64, 75-79, 87-92 

Silos, form of 26 

Silos, foundation of 52, 53, 35, 43, 48, 90, 97, 101 

Silos, general requirements for 21 

Silos, home-made, Ballard 72 

Silos, how to build 21 

Silos, how to place frame on foundation of 35 

Silos, Hy-Rib or Metalrlath reinforced 90 

Silos, kinds of wood for 52 

Silos, lining of wooden 38 

Silos, location of 30 

Silos, metal-lath 90-92 

Silos, monolithic concrete 82-89 

Silos, number of 8 

Silos, octagonal 69 

Silos, on the form of 26 

Silos, proper diameter of 28, 29 

Silos, roof for 39, 40, 57, 64, 97, 107 

Silos, round, capacity 25 

Silos, round wooden ...?.. 31 

Silos, size required 24 

Silos, specifications for 31, 45, 50, 55, 72, 78, 79 

Silos, steel ribbed plastered 90-92 

Silos, superstructure 32 



INDEX. 255 

PAGE. 

Silos, the filling- process 173 

Silos, the time of filling- 18, 143, 174 

Silos, three methods of making sill for 34 

Silos, underground 108 

Silos, underground or pit 108-110 

Silos, value in intensive farming 19 

Silos, ventilation of 41-44 

Silos, vitrified tile 99-102 

Silos with horizontal girts 73 

Size of cutter and power required 178 

Size of silo required 24 

Soiling crops, table of 255 

Soiling crops, time of planting and feeding 235 

Soil fertility mainjtained with silage 130 

Soy beans 152 

Sorghum bagasse 154 

Sorghum silage 153, 160 

South Carolina Station results 121 

South Dakota Station results 124 

Southern and Northern varieties of corn, comparative yield of. 141 

Specifications for a stave silo 55 

Stave silos 50-69 

Stave silos, calculation of staves required for 67 

Stave silos, roof of 57 

Stave silos, specifications for 55 

Steamed silage 188 

Steel ribbed plastered silos 90-92 

Steers, silage for 118, 194 

Stock-yards, boosters for silage 120 

Succulence 16 

Sudan grass for silage 155 

Summer drouth 114 

Summer silo, advantages of Ill 

Surplus crops stored in silo 114 

Swine, silage for 201 

Teosinte for silage 154 

Texas Station results 128 

Thickness of planting- corn 144 

Time of cutting corn for the silo -. 142 



256 INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Time of filling the silo 18, 145, 174 

Thistles for silage 158 

Truck for silage 191 

Underground or pit silos 108-110 

Underground silos 108 

Uniform quality of feed 16 

Use of silage in beef production 118 

Value in intensive farming 19 

Varieties of corn to be planted for the silo 139 

Ventilation of the silo 41-44 

Vertical reinforcement for concrete silos 86 

Vetches for silage 1.5.5 

Vitrified tile silos .' 99-102 

Waste products for silage 159 

Water, use of, in filling silos 186 

Weeds for silage 159 

Weight of concentrated feeds 234 

Wheat, ry9 and oats for silage 157 

Wisconsin Experiment Station silos, description of 48-51 

Yields of clover per acre- 148 



Silver's Pony Blower Silo Filler 

Operates with six horse gasoline engine. 
Capacity three to five tons silage an hour. 
Self Feed with new Friction Reverse 
Cylinder Cutting Mechanism with direct 
suction to blower. 




Silver's 
Pony Blower 

is an inexpen- 
sive Silo Filler for 
the individual use of 
the farmer who de- 
sires a lig-ht power 
Blower without any 
of the disadvantages common to the fly wheel type of Cutter. 

The size and design of this Cutter makes it especially adapted 
for general farm use in cutting all kinds of crops. It is very 
compact and light; at the same time it is of ample strength and 
capacity for filling siloj and will satisfactorily operate with a si.>c 
or eight horse gasoline engine. 

Direct Suction Into Blower — The construction of this machine 
is a departure from former types of Blower Silo Fillers. The 
material is drawn uirectly from the knives into the fan case by 
suction without the use of any conveying mechanism whatever. 
This feature has been thoroughly tested out through two silage- 
cutting seasons to the complete satisfaction of users. 

Capacity is ample for silos up to fifty and seventy-five tons. It 
will cut and elevate three to five tons silage an hour. Where speed, 
or liability of frosts, or a large force of men and teams are factors 
in the case, we recommend a larger machine. 

Feeding Mechanism ivitli Friction Reverse — The machine is 
equipped wit.i the well-known "Ohio" Self Feed Apron and bull- 
dog grip feed rollers all controlled by a single lever which stops, 
starts or reverses tho feed rolls and table at a touch. The reverse 
consists of a wood friction mechanism and operates without the 
slightest strain. 

The Drive Pulley. Cutting Cylinder. Fly Wheel and Blower Fan 
are all on the 1 9/16 in. main shaft, utilizing every ounce of power 
applied. Knives have cutting edges of high carbon tool steel, care- 
fully tempered. Suitable guards cover the knives and other 
moving parts. Fan Case is heavy sheet steel, electrically w^elded. 
7 in. galvanized pipe is used. The machine has two knives and 
four lengths of cut. "Ohio" Shredder blades for dry fodder are 
interchangeable with knives. 

The machine can be furnished with or without special truck for 
mounting. Send lor printed matter on Silver'.s Pony Blo-wer. 

See Silver's "OHIO" Silo Fillers. Pages 260 to 264. 

257 




Xo. 770 Clover Cutter. No. 778 Lever, 11" No. 783 Cuts Vi in 
Cuts V»" lengths, for Knife. Wt. 50 lbs. 2". Hand or Power. 
Poultry. 

Send for SPECIAL Printed 
LINE of SILVER'S "OHIO' 




No. 830 Root anil 
Vearetalile Cutter. 
Cuts and Slits. 



In addition to Silver's "Ohio" Silo Fillers, 
as described in the following pages, we 
manufacture a complete line of Feed Cutters 
and Fodder Shredders in various sizes and 
styles. A few representative machines are 
shown on this pag'e. 

- Whether you cut 40 tons of silage each 
season or 4,000 tons you can make a selection 
from Silver's famous "Ohio" line that will 
just suit your requirements. 




Metal Bucket Carrier 
for No. 11 Cutter. De- 
livers to Right, X.ett or 
Front. 



Silver's Round Inclosed Steel Carrier 
Straight Delivery for No. 11 Ohio Cutter. 

258. 




No. 8V2 and lOM;. 
For Hand or 
Power. 4 lengths 
Cut. Strong and 
Diirnltle. 



No. OS Cuts 14 to 
3". 1 to 3 H. P. 
Gasoline. AVt. 410 
lbs. 



No. IISS with Self Feed 
Table. Cuts 14 to 3". 
3 to 4 Ton»« Silage an 
Hour. 3 to 3 H. P. Gas. 
With or without Carrier. 



Matter on the FAMOUS 
CUTTERS and SHREDDERS 



Whether you feed one aninial or 1,500 you 
will find that the "Ohio" offers just the size 
and style that will fit your needs and your 
purse. 

"Quality First" is tlie motto tliat lias made 
these macliines popular the world over. 

If you are interested in fodder cutting or 
shredding machinery, do not fail to secure our 
special printed matter on "The Famous OHIO J^^- ^f^ ]^*"J*y{p'^*j.- 
Cutters and Shredders." Slits and Pulps. 





Metal Bucket Carrier, Straight or Swivel 
Delivery, for "Ohio" Monarch Silo 
Fillers Nos. 13, 1.5 and 17. 

259 



"Ohio" Shredder Blades 
Reylace K n i v e .s on 
Cutters from No. 9 Up. 
AVe also make other 
styles of Shredders. 




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Silver's "Ohio" Silo Fillers 



Points of Merit in 
a Nut Shell 




The solid foundation upon which «Ohlo" 
superstructures are reared. 



Strength :i ii il 
Durability — Solid 
hardwood f r a m e s . 
mortised, tenoned, 
double pinned, with 
iron rod and nut re- 
inforcement. They 
cannot warp. All 
castings and steel on 
machine are very heavy. "Ohio" Cutters made twenty years ago 
are still in regular service. 

"Ohio" Capacities — Have no equal on the market. They are all 
based on half-inch cut. The throat opening is very large and high. 
The fan surface is two to four times as great as on other machines. 
"Oliio" capacity ratings are based on work by the day or season — 
not by ten-minute tests. 

Self-Feed — The "bull-dog grip" of upper and lower rollers has 
made "Ohio" capacity and easy feeding qualities famous. A 
stationary comb prevents the material from winding around the 
lower roller. The traveling table was first adopted by the "Ohio" 
and has since been copied by all others. Its entire surface is 




The sure, positive "bull-dog grip" of "Ohio" Peed 
Rollers is famous. The Single lever gives absolute 
control of rolls and table, stopping, starting or 
reversing the feed at a touch. 

262 




movable, avoiding a 1 1 
friction due to drugging 

thie fodder by means of 
hootcs, etc. 

Direct Drive — With 
drive pulley, knife cylin- 
der and blower fan all 
on one shaft. One com- 
pact set of gears does 
the work. The direct 
drive avoids trouble and 
b i s repair bilLs. The 
powerful lift of fan is 
done at low speed — no 
danger of blow-ups or 
explosions — no make- Auger side of machine with fan case 
, .„^ ^ removed. The auger prevents feed from 

shift transmission entering blower in bulky, irregular 
mechanism. quantities. 

Cutting Cylinder — The solid wall of corn steadily forced against 
the cutting knives cannot spring them away from Cutter Bar on 
the "Oliio," because of bearings at each end of knives. This is ini- 
possible on the fly wheel type w^here springing results in uneven 
cutting, with long pieces of leaves to form air pockets in the silo. 
Investigate the new^ bearings and ring oiling-device, exact adjust- 
ments, etc. 

Simplicity and Protection — Only six gears and six sprockets on 
the entire machine — tlie gears are perfectly housed — iron or steel 
guards cover all moving machinery — there is a uniform movement 
of feed table and rolls on any length of cut. 

Lever Controls All — A sine:!'^ 
ever, almost human, controls 
the entire feeding mech- 
anism — stopping, starting 
or reversing at will. It is 
easily accessible. A six- 
year-old boy can operate 
it. 




Reverses by Friction — 

No strain — no breakages 
— it took three years to 
perfect, but it is worth it. 
Our new special wood 
friction clutch device in- 
stantly reverses without 
the slightest strain — not 
The friction gear wheel and outside a gear tooth chang?s 
guards are removed to show compact j^^esh. Friction is com- 
siniplieity of "Ohio" gearing. In chang- , j small beveled 

ing from full speed ahead to reverse l^"''" ^ „^«nv le- 

not a gear tooth changes mesh. The wood segments easily le- 
peer of all reverses on the market. 

26.1 



placed by the user. 



!siiiipiic-Ity uf Fau Case Side — The auger carries feed 
evenly to blower instead of in bulky irregular quantities. 
The main shaft bearings are conveniently adjusted. All 
drive chain on the machine is No. 72"^, and is inter- 
changeable. 

Safety — The "Ohio" never explodes — it has an enor- 
mous powerful blast at low speed — 650 to 700 R. P. M. 

Guards for Protection of Operator cover all Moving 
parts. 

Other Features — Blows to highest silos. Cuts all crops. 
Is very easy running. Makes highest quality of silage. 
Is ready to move anywhere by taking down pipe. Suit- 
able for pit silos by simply removing the blower. Made 
in five popular sizes. Ouaity class of users everywhere. 
Converted into first class Shredder by replacing knives 
Willi "Ohio" shredder blades. 




New "Ohio" ElhOTr — This large circle 
curved elbow is furnished free with each 
"Ohio" Monarch Blower Machine. It is 
seven feet long, of steel, and open on under 
side to prevent back pressure. 

The Silo Tube delivers the leaves, mois- 
ture and heavier parts at any desired point 
in silo, uniformly mixed as cut and with a 
strong, self-packing 
force. The tube is of 

heavy galvanized steel. The three-foot 
sections telescope together, and have chain 
connections, readily detachable. 




"Ohio" Monarch Silo Fillers; also the 
special steel truck on which they are 
mounted. It will be noted that the 
opening in fan case now has a sliding guard. 

2(A 



Modern 
Silage Methods 




002 766 103 8 



